UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 20-F

(Mark One)

OR

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2018

OR

for the transition period from                      to                     

OR

Date of event requiring this shell company report

Commission file number 001-38475

ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Ltd

(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its charter)

Not Applicable

(Translation of Registrant’s name into English)

Cayman Islands

(Jurisdiction of incorporation)

83 Clemenceau Avenue #12-03 UE Square

Singapore 239920

(address of principal executive offices)

Carl Firth

Chief Executive Officer and Chairman

ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Limited

83 Clemenceau Avenue #12-03 UE Square

Singapore 239920

(Name, Telephone, E-mail and/or Facsimile number and Address of Company Contact Person)

Securities registered or to be registered, pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

* Not for trading, but only in connection with the registration of the American Depositary Shares.

Securities registered or to be registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act:

None

Securities for which there is a reporting obligation pursuant to Section 15(d) of the Act:

None

Indicate the number of outstanding shares of each of the issuer’s classes of capital stock or common stock as of the close of business covered by the annual report.  

Ordinary shares, par value NT$10 per share: 160,248,940 as of December 31, 2018

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

If this report is an annual or transition report, indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.     Yes  ☐    No  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.     Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).     Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company that prepares its financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards † provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act.  ☐

† The term “new or revised financial accounting standard” refers to any update issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board to its Accounting Standards Codification after April 5, 2012.

Indicate by check mark which basis of accounting the registrant has used to prepare the financial statements included in this filing:

If “Other” has been checked in response to the previous question indicate by check mark which financial statement item the registrant has elected to follow.    Item 17  ☐    Item 18  ☐

If this is an annual report, indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act).    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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GENERAL INFORMATION

Unless otherwise indicated or the context otherwise requires, all references in this Annual Report to the terms “ASLAN,” “ASLAN Pharmaceuticals,” “the company,” “we,” “us” and “our” refer to ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Limited and its subsidiaries.

PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL AND OTHER INFORMATION

Our consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards, or IFRS, as issued by the International Accounting Standard Board, or IASB, which may differ in material respects from generally accepted accounting principles in other jurisdictions, including the United States.

Our functional currency is the U.S. dollar. Unless otherwise specified, all monetary amounts presented are in U.S. dollars. All references in this Annual Report  to “$” mean U.S. dollars, all references in this Annual Report  to “NT$” mean New Taiwan dollars, the legal currency of the Republic of China, or ROC, and all references in this Annual Report  to “SG$” mean Singapore dollars, the legal currency of Singapore. No representation is made that the New Taiwan dollar amounts referred to herein could have been or could be converted into U.S. dollars at any particular rate or at all. Any discrepancies in any table between totals and sums of the amounts listed are due to rounding.

We have made rounding adjustments to some of the figures included in this Annual Report . Accordingly, numerical figures shown as totals in some tables may not be an arithmetic aggregation of the figures that preceded them.

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CAUTIONARY STATEMENT REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This Annual Report contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (Exchange Act), that involve substantial risks and uncertainties. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by the words “may,” “might,” “will,” “could,” “would,” “should,” “expect,” “intend,” “plan,” “objective,” “anticipate,” “believe,” “estimate,” “predict,” “potential,” “continue” and “ongoing,” or the negative of these terms, or other comparable terminology intended to identify statements about the future. These statements involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other important factors that may cause our actual results, levels of activity, performance or achievements to be materially different from the information expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements. The forward-looking statements and opinions contained in this Annual Report on Form 20-F are based upon information available to us as of the date of this Annual Report and, while we believe such information forms a reasonable basis for such statements, such information may be limited or incomplete, and our statements should not be read to indicate that we have conducted an exhaustive inquiry into, or review of, all potentially available relevant information. Forward-looking statements include statements about:

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You should refer to the section titled “Item 3.D. Risk Factors” for a discussion of important factors that may cause our actual results to differ materially from those expressed or implied by our forward-looking statements. As a result of these factors, we cannot assure you that the forward-looking statements in this Annual Report will prove to be accurate. Furthermore, if our forward-looking statements prove to be inaccurate, the inaccuracy may be material. In light of the significant uncertainties in these forward-looking statements, you should not regard these statements as a representation or warranty by us or any other person that we will achieve our objectives and plans in any specified time frame, or at all. We undertake no obligation to publicly update any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required by law.  We claim the protection of the safe harbor for forward-looking statements contained in the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 for all forward-looking statements.

You should read this Annual Report and the documents that we reference in this Annual Report, completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect. We qualify all of our forward-looking statements by these cautionary statements.

Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this Annual Report on Form 20-F concerning our industry and the markets in which we operate, including our general expectations and market position, market opportunity and market size estimates, is based on information from independent industry analysts, third-party sources and management estimates. Management estimates are derived from publicly available information released by independent industry analysts and third-party sources, as well as data from our internal research, and are based on assumptions made by us based on such data and our knowledge of such industry and market, which we believe to be reasonable. In addition, while we believe the market opportunity information included in this Annual Report on Form 20-F is generally reliable and is based on reasonable assumptions, such data involve risks and uncertainties and are subject to change based on various factors, including those discussed under the section of this Annual Report on Form 20-F titled “Item 3.D—Risk Factors.”

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PART I

Item 1. Identity of Directors, Senior Management and Advisers

Not applicable.

Item 2. Offer Statistics and Expected Timetable

Not applicable.

Item 3. Key Information

The following selected consolidated statement of comprehensive loss data for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018 and the selected consolidated balance sheet data as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 have been derived from our audited consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 20-F. Our historical results for any period are not necessarily indicative of results to be expected for any future period. The selected consolidated financial data should be read in conjunction with, and are qualified in their entirety by reference to, our audited consolidated financial statements and related notes and “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects” below.

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Not applicable

Not applicable

An investment in our American Depositary Shares (ADSs) involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the following information about these risks, together with the other information appearing elsewhere in this Annual Report, before deciding to invest in our ADSs. The occurrence of any of the following risks could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and future growth prospects. In these circumstances, the market price of our ADSs could decline, and you could lose all or part of your investment. Additional risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or that we currently deem immaterial may also impair our business operations and price of our ADSs.

Risks Related to Our Financial Condition and Need for Additional Capital

We have incurred significant losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future.

We are a clinical-stage oncology and inflammatory disease focused biopharmaceutical company based in Singapore developing novel therapeutics for global markets. We target diseases that are both highly prevalent in Asia and orphan indications in the United States and Europe. Investment in biopharmaceutical product development is highly speculative because it entails substantial upfront capital expenditures and significant risk that any potential product candidate will not demonstrate adequate effectiveness in the targeted indication or an acceptable safety profile, gain regulatory approval or become commercially viable. All of our product candidates will require substantial additional development time and resources before we would be able to apply for or receive regulatory approvals and begin generating revenue from product sales. We are not profitable and have incurred significant net losses in each year since our inception, including net losses of $9.0 million, $39.9 million and $42.2 million for fiscal years 2016, 2017 and 2018, respectively. As of December 31, 2018, we had an accumulated deficit of $132.5 million.

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We have devoted substantially all our financial resources to developing our product candidates and targeted discovery work, including preclinical development activities and clinical trials. We expect to continue to incur substantial and increased expenses, losses and negative cash flows as we expand our development activities and advance our clinical programs, particularly with respect to our planned clinical development for varlitinib, ASLAN003 and ASLAN004, as well as the ASLAN005 discovery program. If our product candidates are not successfully developed or commercialized, including because of a lack of capital, or if we do not generate enough revenue following marketing approval, we will not achieve profitability and our business may fail. Even if we successfully obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates in the United States and Europe, our revenue will also be heavily dependent upon the size of the markets outside of the United States and Europe, in particular China and Japan, as well as our ability to obtain market approval and achieve commercial success in those markets.

We currently do not generate any revenue from product sales, have generated only limited revenue since inception, and may never be profitable.

We do not anticipate generating revenue from sales of our proprietary product candidates for the foreseeable future. Our ability to generate future revenue from product sales depends on our success in completing clinical development of, obtaining regulatory approval for, and launching and successfully commercializing any product candidates.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with pharmaceutical product development, we are unable to predict the timing or amount of increased expenses, when, or if, we will begin to generate revenue from product sales, or when, or if, we will be able to achieve or maintain profitability. In addition, our expenses could increase beyond planned levels if we are required by the U.S. FDA to perform studies in addition to those that we currently anticipate or if such studies are larger, take longer or are otherwise more expensive to conduct than we expect.

Even if one or more of our product candidates is approved for commercial sale, to the extent we do not engage a third-party collaborator, we anticipate incurring significant costs associated with commercializing any approved product candidate. Even if we are able to generate revenue from the sale of any approved products, we may not become profitable and may need to obtain additional funding to continue operations.

We will need to obtain substantial additional financing for our operations, and if we fail to obtain additional financing, we may be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our product development programs or commercialization efforts.

Developing pharmaceutical products, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials, is expensive and we have consumed substantial amounts of capital since inception. To date, we have financed our operations through government subsidies and grants, collaboration payments and the sale of equity securities and convertible debt. We will need substantial additional financing to continue our operations and do not expect revenues from product sales or potential licensing transactions to be sufficient to offset our development expenses as we advance our clinical programs, including varlitinib.

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As of December 31, 2018, we had cash and cash equivalents of approximately $28.9 million and working capital of $21.0 million. Based upon our current operating plan, we believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital requirements for at least the next 12 months. Regardless of our expectations as to how long our existing cash and cash equivalents will fund our operations, changing circumstances beyond our control may cause us to consume capital more rapidly than we currently anticipate. For example, our clinical trials may encounter technical, enrollment or other difficulties that could increase our development costs more than we expect. We may also incur expenses as we create additional infrastructure to support our planned commercialization efforts and our operations as a U.S. public company. In any event, we will require additional capital prior to completing pivotal studies of (except with respect to varlitinib in biliary tract cancer), filing for regulatory approval for, or commercializing, varlitinib, ASLAN003, ASLAN004 or any of our other preclinical product candidates.

We cannot guarantee that future financing will be available in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us, if at all. If we are unable to raise additional capital when required or on acceptable terms, we may be required to:

If we are unable to raise additional capital in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us, we will be prevented from pursuing development and commercialization efforts, which will have an adverse effect on our business, operating results and prospects.

Risks Related to Clinical Development and Regulatory Approval

We are heavily dependent on the success of varlitinib, as well as ASLAN003 and ASLAN004. We cannot give any assurance that any of varlitinib, ASLAN003 or ASLAN004 will successfully complete clinical development or receive regulatory approval, which is necessary before they can be commercialized.

Our business and future success is substantially dependent on our ability to successfully develop, obtain regulatory approval for, and successfully commercialize our lead program, varlitinib, as well as ASLAN003 and ASLAN004. Any delay or setback in the development of any of our product candidates, could adversely affect our business and cause the price of our ADSs or ordinary shares to decline. Should our planned clinical development of our more advanced product candidates fail to be completed in a timely manner or at all, we will need to rely on our other product candidates, which will require additional time and resources to obtain regulatory approval and proceed with commercialization. We cannot assure you that our planned clinical development for varlitinib or our other product candidates will be completed in a timely manner, or at all, or that we will be able to obtain approval for varlitinib or any of our product candidates from the U.S. FDA, the Chinese National Medical Products Administration, or NMPA (formerly China Food and Drug Administration, or CFDA), or any comparable foreign regulatory authority.

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Clinical development is a lengthy and expensive process with an uncertain outcome, and results of earlier studies and trials may not be predictive of future trial results. Failure can occur at any stage of clinical development. We have never completed a pivotal clinical trial for our product candidates or submitted a New Drug Application, or NDA, or a Biologics License Application, or BLA, to the U.S. FDA or similar drug approval filings to comparable foreign authorities.

Clinical testing is expensive and can take many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain. Failure can occur at any time during the clinical trial process. The results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials of our product candidates may not be predictive of the results of subsequent clinical trials. We have a limited operating history and to date have not demonstrated our ability to complete large scale pivotal clinical trials.

Product candidates in later stages of clinical trials may fail to show the desired safety and efficacy traits despite having progressed through preclinical studies and initial clinical trials. In addition to the safety and efficacy traits of any product candidate, clinical trial failures may result from a multitude of factors including flaws in trial design, dose selection, placebo effect and patient enrollment criteria. A number of companies in the biopharmaceutical industry have suffered significant setbacks in advanced clinical trials due to lack of efficacy or adverse safety profiles, notwithstanding promising results in earlier trials. Based upon negative or inconclusive results, we or any potential future collaborator may decide, or regulators may require us, to conduct additional clinical trials or preclinical studies. In addition, data obtained from trials and studies are susceptible to varying interpretations, and regulators may not interpret our data as favorably as we do, which may delay, limit or prevent regulatory approval. Our future clinical trials may not be successful.

If any product candidate is found to be unsafe or lack efficacy, we will not be able to obtain regulatory approval for it and our business may be materially harmed. For example, if the results of our ongoing pivotal studies for varlitinib in biliary tract cancer, our ongoing Phase 2 clinical trial of ASLAN003 in AML, our ongoing Phase 1 clinical trial of ASLAN004 in atopic dermatitis, or any other clinical trials for these product candidates demonstrate unexpected safety findings or do not achieve the primary efficacy endpoints, the prospects for approval of these product candidates, as well the price of our ADSs and ordinary shares and our ability to create shareholder value would be materially and adversely affected.

In some instances, there can be significant variability in safety and/or efficacy results between different trials of the same product candidate due to numerous factors, including changes in trial protocols, differences in composition of the patient populations, adherence to the dosing regimen and other trial protocols and the dropout rate among clinical trial participants. For example, we could be required to use a primary endpoint in our pivotal studies that is different from endpoints in our Phase 2 clinical trials, which could result in negative or less compelling efficacy results in pivotal trials despite promising results in Phase 2 clinical trials. We do not know whether any future clinical trials we may conduct will demonstrate consistent or adequate efficacy and safety to obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates. If we are unable to bring any of our current or future product candidates to market, our ability to create long-term shareholder value will be limited.

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Delays in clinical trials are common and have many causes, and any delay could result in increased costs to us and jeopardize or delay our ability to obtain regulatory approval and commence product sales.

We may experience delays in clinical trials of our product candidates. Our planned clinical trials may not begin on time, have an effective design, enroll a sufficient number of patients, or be completed on schedule, if at all. Our clinical trials can be delayed for a variety of reasons, including:

We could also experience delays if physicians encounter unresolved ethical issues associated with enrolling patients in clinical trials of our product candidates in lieu of prescribing existing treatments that have established safety and efficacy profiles. Further, a clinical trial may be suspended or terminated by us, the IRBs for the institutions in which such trials are being conducted, any data monitoring committee for such trial, or by the U.S. FDA, NMPA or other regulatory authorities due to a number of factors, including failure to conduct the clinical trial in accordance with regulatory requirements or our clinical protocols, inspection of clinical trial or manufacturing sites by the U.S. FDA, NMPA or other regulatory authorities resulting in the imposition of a clinical hold, unforeseen safety issues or adverse side effects, failure to demonstrate a benefit from using a product candidate, changes in governmental regulations or administrative actions or lack of adequate funding to continue the clinical trial. Furthermore, we rely on CROs and clinical trial sites to ensure the proper and timely conduct of our clinical trials and while we have agreements governing their committed activities, we have limited influence over their actual performance. If we experience termination of, or delays in the completion of, any clinical trial of our product candidates, the commercial prospects for our product candidates will be harmed, and our ability to generate product revenues will be delayed. In addition, any delays in completing our clinical trials will increase our costs and slow down our product development and approval process. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations significantly. Many of the factors that cause, or lead to, a delay in the commencement or completion of clinical trials may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval for our product candidates.

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Because we have multiple product candidates in our clinical pipeline and are considering a variety of target indications, we may expend our limited resources to pursue a particular product candidate or indication and fail to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and managerial resources, we must focus our research and development efforts on those product candidates and specific indications that we believe are the most promising. As a result, we may forego or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or other indications that later prove to have greater commercial potential. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities.

We may in the future spend our resources on other research programs and product candidates for specific indications that ultimately do not yield any commercially viable products. For example, one component of our business strategy is to build a broad immuno-oncology portfolio based on antibodies which inhibit specific immune checkpoints in ways that we believe will enable us to simultaneously target multiple pathways. However, these antibodies have not been proven and we cannot assure you that they will be viable candidates for preclinical development, that we will be able to target multiple pathways simultaneously or that our estimates for the resultant pipeline will prove accurate. In addition, the costs, time and resources required to successfully move these antibodies into development may be greater than our estimates. Furthermore, if we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights.

Our product candidates may cause adverse events or have other properties that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval or limit the scope of any approved label or market acceptance.

Adverse events, or AEs, caused by our product candidates or other potentially harmful characteristics of our product candidates could cause us, other reviewing entities, clinical trial sites or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay or halt clinical trials and could result in the denial of regulatory approval. For example, across all varlitinib clinical trials, the most commonly occurring drug-related AEs as of December 31, 2018 were nausea (36% of patients with any grade, 1% with grade 3 or 4), diarrhea (32% of patients with any grade, 3% with grade 3 or 4) and fatigue (32% of patients with any grade, 4% with grade 3 or 4). Grade refers to the severity of the AE, with grade 3 indicating a severe or medically significant but not immediately life-threatening AE, grade 4 indicating an AE with potentially life-threatening consequences, and grade 5 meaning patient death.

Patients admitted to our varlitinib clinical trials are experiencing later stages of cancer and may be in a diminished physical state prior to entering our clinical trials, which put them at increased risk of death. These patients may die while receiving our drug candidates. In such circumstances, it may not be possible to exclude with certainty a causal relationship to varlitinib. For example, across our varlitinib clinical trials, seven patient deaths (grade 5) that were possibly related to the varlitinib treatment occurred. One death was related to disease progression (worsening of metastatic breast cancer), one death was related to acute kidney injury, one death was due to liver failure leading to multi-organ failure and sepsis, one death was related to hemorrhage of upper gastrointestinal tract, one death was related to heart failure, one death was related to polymicrobial bacteremia due to hepatobiliary sepsis and one death was related to condition deterioration with suspected cholangiogenic infection. These deaths were reported to the appropriate regulatory authorities as “possibly related” to varlitinib because the immediate cause of the patient’s death could not be determined, and therefore, a relationship to varlitinib could not be excluded.

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Serious adverse events observed in any of our clinical trials may adversely impact our ability to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates. Further, if any of our approved products cause serious or unexpected side effects after receiving market approval, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including:

Any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of the affected product candidate and could substantially increase the costs of commercializing our product candidates.

The regulatory approval processes of the U.S. FDA, NMPA and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time consuming and inherently unpredictable, and if we are ultimately unable to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, our business will be substantially harmed.

The time required to obtain approval by the U.S. FDA, NMPA and comparable foreign authorities is unpredictable but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. For example, we cannot guarantee that our ongoing pivotal clinical trials of varlitinib in biliary tract cancer will be sufficient to warrant accelerated approval or that our Phase 2 clinical trials of ASLAN003 in AML or Phase 1 clinical trials of ASLAN004 in atopic dermatitis will be sufficient to allow subsequent development or that the U.S. FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities will not require additional or different clinical trials prior to subsequent development of ASLAN003 or ASLAN004 or that the required primary endpoints in subsequent pivotal trials or other clinical trials will be different than those in Phase 2 clinical trials.

Our product candidates could fail to receive regulatory approval for many reasons, including the following:

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This lengthy approval process, as well as the unpredictability of future clinical trial results, may result in our failing to obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates, which would harm our business, results of operations and prospects significantly.

In addition, even if we were to obtain approval, regulatory authorities may approve any of our product candidates for fewer or more limited indications than we request, may not approve the price we intend to charge for our products, may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly post-marketing clinical trials, or may approve a product candidate with a label that does not include the labeling claims necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of that product candidate. Any of the foregoing scenarios could harm the commercial prospects for our product candidates.

We have not previously submitted an NDA, BLA or any similar drug approval filing to the U.S. FDA or any comparable foreign authority for any product candidate, and we cannot be certain that any of our product candidates will be successful in clinical trials or receive regulatory approval. Further, our product candidates may not receive regulatory approval even if they are successful in clinical trials. If we do not receive regulatory approvals for our product candidates, we may not be able to continue our operations. Even if we successfully obtain regulatory approvals to market one or more of our product candidates, our revenue will be dependent, to a significant extent, upon the size of the markets in the territories for which we gain regulatory approval. If the markets for patients or indications that we are targeting are not as significant as we estimate, we may not generate significant revenue from sales of such products, if approved.

Pharmaceutical companies in China are required to comply with extensive regulations and hold a number of permits and licenses to carry on their business. Our ability to obtain and maintain these regulatory approvals is uncertain, and future government regulation may place additional burdens on our efforts to commercialize our product candidates.

The pharmaceutical industry in China is subject to extensive government regulation and supervision. The regulatory framework addresses all aspects of operating in the pharmaceutical industry, including approval, registration, production, distribution, packaging, labelling, storage and shipment, advertising, licensing and certification requirements and procedures, periodic renewal and reassessment processes, registration of new drugs and environmental protection. In order to commercialize our product candidates and manufacture and distribute pharmaceutical products in China, we are required to:

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If we are unable to obtain or renew such permits or any other permits or licenses required for our operations, will not be able to engage in the commercialization, manufacture and distribution of our product candidates and our business may be adversely affected.

The regulatory framework governing the pharmaceutical industry in China is subject to change and amendment from time to time. The Chinese government has introduced various reforms to the Chinese healthcare system in recent years and may continue to do so, with an overall objective to expand basic medical insurance coverage and improve the quality and reliability of healthcare services. The specific regulatory changes under the reform still remain uncertain. The implementing measures to be issued may not be sufficiently effective to achieve the stated goals, and as a result, we may not be able to benefit from such reform to the level we expect, if at all. Moreover, the reform could give rise to regulatory developments, such as more burdensome administrative procedures, which may have an adverse effect on our business and prospects.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, we will still face extensive regulatory requirements and our products may face future development and regulatory difficulties.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval in the United States, China or other markets, the U.S. FDA, NMPA or other regulatory authorities, as applicable, may still impose significant restrictions on the indicated uses or marketing of our product candidates, or impose ongoing requirements for potentially costly post-approval studies or post-market surveillance. Our product candidates, if approved, will also be subject to ongoing U.S. FDA, NMPA and/ or other applicable regulatory requirements governing the labeling, packaging, storage, distribution, safety surveillance, advertising, promotion, record-keeping and reporting of safety and other post-market information. The holder of an approved NDA or BLA is obligated to monitor and report AEs and any failure of a product to meet the specifications in the NDA or BLA, as applicable. The holder of an approved NDA or BLA must also submit new or supplemental applications and obtain U.S. FDA approval for certain changes to the approved product, product labeling or manufacturing process. Advertising and promotional materials must comply with U.S. FDA rules and are subject to U.S. FDA review, in addition to other potentially applicable federal and state laws.

In addition, manufacturers of drug products and their facilities are subject to payment of user fees and continual review and periodic inspections by the U.S. FDA, NMPA and other regulatory authorities for compliance with current good manufacturing practices, or cGMP, and adherence to commitments made in the NDA. If we or a regulatory agency discovers previously unknown problems with a product, such as AEs of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facility where the product is manufactured, a regulatory agency may impose restrictions relative to that product or the manufacturing facility, including requiring recall or withdrawal of the product from the market or suspension of manufacturing.

If we fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements following approval of a product candidate, a regulatory agency may:

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In particular, we may seek accelerated approval from the U.S. FDA for our product candidates which will likely require a further confirmatory trial. If this confirmatory trial is not successful, we will be required to withdraw our product candidate from the U.S. market and potentially other markets. For instance, we intend to seek accelerated approval for varlitinib in second-line biliary tract cancer.

Any government investigation of alleged violations of law could require us to expend significant time and resources in response and could generate negative publicity. The occurrence of any event or penalty described above may inhibit our ability to commercialize our products and generate revenue.

In addition, if any of our product candidates are approved and we are found to have improperly promoted off-label uses of those products, we may become subject to significant liability. The U.S. FDA and other regulatory agencies strictly regulate the promotional claims that may be made about prescription products, such as our product candidates, if approved. In particular, a product may not be promoted for uses that are not approved by the U.S. FDA or such other regulatory agencies as reflected in the product’s approved labeling. However, companies may share truthful and not misleading information that is otherwise consistent with the product’s FDA approved labeling. For example, if we receive marketing approval for varlitinib as a treatment for biliary tract cancer, physicians may nevertheless use our product for their patients in a manner that is inconsistent with the approved label. If we are found to have promoted such off-label uses, we may become subject to significant liability, which would materially adversely affect our business and financial condition.

Even if we obtain U.S. FDA approval for our product candidates in the United States, we may never obtain approval to commercialize our product candidates outside of the United States, which would limit our ability to realize their full market potential.

In order to market any products outside of the United States, we must establish and comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements of other countries regarding safety and efficacy. Clinical trials conducted in one country may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other countries, and regulatory approval in one country does not mean that regulatory approval will be obtained in any other country. Approval processes vary among countries and can involve additional product testing and validation and additional administrative review periods.

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Seeking foreign regulatory approval could result in difficulties and costs for us and require additional non-clinical studies or clinical trials which could be costly and time consuming. Regulatory requirements can vary widely from country to country and could delay or prevent the introduction of our products in those countries. We do not have any product candidates approved for sale in any jurisdiction, including international markets, and we do not have experience in obtaining regulatory approval in international markets. If we fail to comply with regulatory requirements in international markets or to obtain and maintain required approvals, or if regulatory approvals in international markets are delayed, our target market will be reduced and our ability to realize the full market potential of our products will be harmed.

If we fail to develop, acquire or in-license other product candidates or products, our business and prospects will be limited.

Our long-term growth strategy is to develop, acquire or in-license and commercialize a portfolio of product candidates in addition to varlitinib and our other existing product candidates. Identifying, selecting and acquiring or licensing promising product candidates requires substantial technical, financial and human resources expertise. Efforts to do so may not result in the actual development, acquisition or license of a particular product candidate, potentially resulting in a diversion of our management’s time and the expenditure of our resources with no resulting benefit. If we are unable to add additional product candidates to our pipeline, our long-term business and prospects will be limited.

We rely on third parties to conduct our preclinical studies and clinical trials. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or meet expected deadlines, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for or commercialize our product candidates and our business could be substantially harmed.

We have relied upon and plan to continue to rely upon third-party CROs to conduct our preclinical studies and clinical trials, including investigator-initiated studies sponsored by the investigator’s institution, and control only certain aspects of their activities. Nevertheless, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol, legal, regulatory and scientific standards and our reliance on the CROs does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities. We and our CROs are required to comply with U.S. FDA laws and regulations regarding current good clinical practice, or cGCP, which are also required by the Competent Authorities of the Member States of the European Economic Area and comparable foreign regulatory authorities in the form of International Council for Harmonization, or ICH, guidelines for all of our products in clinical development. Regulatory authorities enforce cGCP through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, principal investigators and trial sites. If we or any of our CROs fail to comply with applicable cGCP, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the U.S. FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. We cannot assure you that upon inspection by a given regulatory authority, such regulatory authority will determine that any of our clinical trials comply with cGCP regulations. In addition, our U.S. clinical trials must be conducted with product produced under cGMP regulations. While we have agreements governing activities of our CROs, we have limited influence over their actual performance. In addition, portions of the clinical trials for our product candidates are expected to be conducted at various locations great distances from where our principal operations are located in Singapore, which will make it more difficult for us to monitor CROs and perform visits of our clinical trial sites and will force us to rely heavily on CROs to ensure the proper and timely conduct of our clinical trials and compliance with applicable regulations, including cGCP. Failure to comply with applicable regulations in the conduct of the clinical trials for our product candidates may require us to repeat clinical trials, which would delay the regulatory approval process.

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Some of our CROs have an ability to terminate their respective agreements with us if, among other reasons, it can be reasonably demonstrated that the safety of the subjects participating in our clinical trials warrants such termination, if we make a general assignment for the benefit of our creditors or if we are liquidated. If any of our relationships with these third-party CROs terminate, we may not be able to enter into arrangements with alternative CROs or to do so on commercially reasonable terms. In addition, our CROs are not our employees, and except for remedies available to us under our agreements with such CROs, we cannot control whether or not they devote sufficient time and resources to our preclinical and clinical programs. If CROs do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or obligations or meet expected deadlines, if they need to be replaced or if the quality or accuracy of the clinical data they obtain is compromised due to the failure to adhere to our clinical protocols, regulatory requirements or for other reasons, our clinical trials may be extended, delayed or terminated and we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for or successfully commercialize our product candidates. Consequently, our results of operations and the commercial prospects for our product candidates would be harmed, our costs could increase substantially and our ability to generate revenue could be delayed significantly.

Switching or adding additional CROs involves additional cost and requires management time and focus. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO commences work. As a result, delays occur, which can materially impact our ability to meet our desired clinical development timelines. Though we carefully manage our relationships with our CROs, there can be no assurance that we will not encounter challenges or delays in the future or that these delays or challenges will not have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and prospects.

Risks Related to Our Business Operations and Industry

Our future success depends on our ability to retain key executives and to attract, retain and motivate qualified personnel.

We are highly dependent on the principal members of our executive team listed under “Management” located elsewhere in this Annual Report, the loss of whose services may adversely impact the achievement of our objectives. While we have entered into employment agreements with each of our executive officers, any of them could leave our employment at any time, subject to any applicable notice requirements. Recruiting and retaining other qualified employees for our business, including scientific and technical personnel, will also be critical to our success. Competition for skilled personnel is intense and the turnover rate can be high. We may not be able to attract and retain personnel on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical companies for individuals with similar skill sets. In addition, failure to succeed in clinical studies may make it more challenging to recruit and retain qualified personnel. The inability to recruit or loss of the services of any executive or key employee might impede the progress of our development and commercialization objectives.

We will need to expand our organization, and we may experience difficulties in managing this growth, which could disrupt our operations.

As of December 31, 2018, we had 56 full-time employees. In connection with our January 2019 corporate restructuring plan, we reduced our total workforce by approximately 30%.  In the future we may expand our employee base to increase our managerial, scientific, clinical, operational, financial and other resources, to add a sales and marketing function and to hire more consultants and contractors. Future growth would impose significant additional responsibilities on our management, including the need to identify, recruit, maintain, motivate and integrate additional employees, consultants and contractors. Also, our management may need to divert a disproportionate amount of its attention away from our day-to-day activities and devote a substantial amount of time to managing these growth activities. We may not be

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able to effectively manage the expansion of our operations, which may result in weaknesses in our infrastructure, give rise to operational mistakes, loss of business opportunities, loss of employees and reduced productivity among remaining employees. Future growth could require significant capital expenditures and may divert financial resources from other projects, such as the development of our existing or future product candidates. If our management is unable to effectively manage our growth, our expenses may increase more than expected, our ability to generate and grow revenue could be reduced, and we may not be able to implement our business strategy. Our future financial performance and our ability to commercialize our product candidates, if approved, and compete effectively will depend, in part, on our ability to effectively manage any future growth.

We may undertake internal restructuring activities in the future that could result in disruptions to our business or otherwise materially harm our results of operations or financial condition.

From time to time we may undertake internal restructuring activities as we continue to evaluate and attempt to optimize our cost and operating structure in light of developments in our business strategy and long-term operating plans. For example, we initiated a corporate restructuring in January 2019 that resulted in a reduction in our workforce. Any such restructuring activities may result in write-offs or other restructuring charges. There can be no assurance that any restructuring activities that we have undertaken or undertake in the future will achieve the cost savings, operating efficiencies or other benefits that we may initially expect. Restructuring activities may also result in a loss of continuity, accumulated knowledge and inefficiency during transitional periods and thereafter. In addition, internal restructurings can require a significant amount of time and focus from management and other employees, which may divert attention from commercial operations. If any internal restructuring activities we have undertaken or undertake in the future fail to achieve some or all of the expected benefits therefrom, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

The terms of our Loan Agreement with CSL Finance place restrictions on our operating and financial flexibility. If we raise additional capital through debt financing, the terms of any new debt could further restrict our ability to operate our business.

In connection with the license agreement with CSL Limited related to ASLAN004, in May 2014 we entered into a loan agreement with CSL Finance Pty Ltd, or CSL Finance, pursuant to which CSL Finance agreed to provide a ten-year facility for $4.5 million, or the CSL Facility.  Borrowings under the CSL Facility are unsecured and can be used to reimburse a portion of eligible invoices for certain research and development costs or expenses incurred by us in connection with developing ASLAN004 and approved by CSL Finance at each drawdown period.  In addition, we are required to mandatorily prepay amounts outstanding if we receive any income or revenue in connection with the commercialization or out-licensing of any intellectual property rights (other than under the license agreement with CSL Limited related to ASLAN004), in which case we are required to apply at least a low double digit percentage of such income or revenue against any amounts then-outstanding under the CSL Facility.  Under the CSL Facility, we are subject to customary reporting and restrictive covenants.  If an event of default occurs, CSL Finance can terminate the commitment under the CSL Facility and accelerate all amounts outstanding.

Further, if we are liquidated, CSL Finance’s right to repayment would be senior to the rights of the holders of our ordinary shares to receive any proceeds from the liquidation. Any declaration by CSL Finance of an event of default could significantly harm our business and prospects and could cause the price of our ordinary shares to decline. If we raise any additional debt financing, the terms of such additional debt could further restrict our operating and financial flexibility.

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We face potential product liability, and, if successful claims are brought against us, we may incur substantial liability.

The use of our product candidates in clinical trials and the sale of any products for which we obtain marketing approval exposes us to the risk of product liability claims. Product liability claims might be brought against us by consumers, healthcare providers, pharmaceutical companies or others selling or otherwise coming into contact with our products and product candidates. If we cannot successfully defend against product liability claims, we could incur substantial liability and costs. In addition, regardless of merit or eventual outcome, product liability claims may result in:

Our current clinical trial liability insurance coverage may not be sufficient to reimburse us for any expenses or losses we may suffer. Moreover, insurance coverage is becoming increasingly expensive and in the future we may not be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in sufficient amounts to protect us against losses due to liability. If and when we obtain marketing approval for our product candidates, we intend to expand our insurance coverage to include the sale of commercial products; however, we may be unable to obtain product liability insurance on commercially reasonable terms or in adequate amounts. On occasion, large judgments have been awarded in class action lawsuits based on drugs that had unanticipated adverse effects. A successful product liability claim or series of claims brought against us could cause the price of our ADSs or ordinary shares to decline and, if judgments exceed our insurance coverage, could adversely affect our results of operations and business.

Our internal computer systems, or those of our CROs or other contractors or consultants, may fail or suffer security breaches, which could result in a material disruption of our operations.

Despite the implementation of security measures, our internal computer systems and those of our CROs and other contractors and consultants are vulnerable to damage from computer viruses, unauthorized access, natural disasters, terrorism, war and telecommunication and electrical failures. Such events could cause interruptions of our operations. For instance, the loss of preclinical study or clinical trial data involving our product candidates could result in delays in our development and regulatory filing efforts and significantly increase our costs. In addition, theft or other exposure of data may interfere with our ability to protect our intellectual property, trade secrets, and other information critical to our operations. We can provide no assurances that certain sensitive and proprietary information relating to one or more of our product candidates has not been, or will not in the future be, compromised. There can be no assurances we will not experience unauthorized intrusions into our computer systems, or those of our CROs and other contractors and consultants, that we will successfully detect future unauthorized intrusions in a timely manner, or that future unauthorized intrusions will not result in material adverse effects on our financial condition, reputation, or business prospects.

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Certain data breaches must also be reported to affected individuals and the government, and in some cases to the media, under provisions of the U.S. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, or HIPAA, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act, or HITECH, other U.S. federal and state law, and requirements of non-U.S. jurisdictions, including the European Union Data Protection Directive, and financial penalties may also apply.

Our insurance policies may not be adequate to compensate us for the potential losses arising from breaches, failures or disruptions of our infrastructure, catastrophic events and disasters or otherwise. In addition, such insurance may not be available to us in the future on economically reasonable terms, or at all. Further, our insurance may not cover all claims made against us and defending a suit, regardless of its merit, could be costly and divert management’s attention.

Furthermore, the loss of clinical trial data from completed or future clinical trials could result in delays in our regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. Likewise, we rely on other third parties for the manufacture of our product candidates and to conduct clinical trials, and similar events relating to their computer systems could also have a material adverse effect on our business.

In addition to in-licensing or acquiring product candidates, we may engage in future business acquisitions that could disrupt our business, cause dilution to our ADS holders and harm our financial condition and operating results.

While we currently have no specific plans to acquire any other businesses, we have, from time to time, evaluated acquisition opportunities and may, in the future, make acquisitions of, or investments in, companies that we believe have products or capabilities that are a strategic or commercial fit with our current product candidates and business or otherwise offer opportunities for our company. In connection with these acquisitions or investments, we may:

We also may be unable to find suitable acquisition candidates and we may not be able to complete acquisitions on favorable terms, if at all. If we do complete an acquisition, we cannot assure you that it will ultimately strengthen our competitive position or that it will not be viewed negatively by customers, financial markets or investors. Further, future acquisitions could also pose numerous additional risks to our operations, including:

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We may not be able to complete one or more acquisitions or effectively integrate the operations, products or personnel gained through any such acquisition without a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our Asia development platform is unproven and may not result in the competitive advantages we anticipate.

We have built a development platform centered in Asia that is designed to enable us to accelerate the development of drugs which target Asia prevalent diseases and which we believe can generate data suitable for submission to regulators in the United States, Europe, China and Japan. Although data collected in Asia from the varlitinib biliary tract cancer clinical trial as well as other varlitinib clinical data have been submitted to a  number of regulatory authorities, including the U.S. FDA, the NMPA, the Pharmaceutical and Medical Devices Agency, or PMDA, the Health Sciences Authority in Singapore, the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration and the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety in South Korea, and after reviewing the data these health authorities have each agreed to include patients from their respective countries in the varlitinib biliary tract cancer clinical trials, we cannot guarantee this result will hold true in the future. Regulatory authorities could potentially reject Asia data if they believe that the Asian disease population is substantially different from the disease population in their particular country. Furthermore, while we have shown in certain cases that the pharmacokinetics in Asian and Caucasian patients are similar, we cannot guarantee that this will hold true more generally or in the future, or with respect to other ethnicities. While we believe our platform in Asia offers us an opportunity to accelerate the development of novel therapies in diseases where either the diseases are more prevalent or the availability of suitable patients in clinical trials is greater, an Asia-focused development platform is a relatively novel approach to drug development and has not yet resulted in a proven track record of accelerated development or regulatory approval.

Furthermore, drug development focused in Asia may be subject to a number of risks and uncertainties. We cannot assure you that governments of Asian countries will not enact regulations or incentives that favor local pharmaceutical companies over foreign-owned pharmaceutical companies. Any developments in Asia that make clinical development costlier or more time-consuming could delay our development timelines and materially harm our business and results of operations.

Our operations across Asia could be subject to natural disasters, health epidemics and other business disruptions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operation and financial condition.

Our operations, and in particular our clinical trials, are being conducted across areas of Asia that may be prone to natural disasters, such as earthquakes, cyclones, monsoons and floods, which could cause interruptions to our operations. In addition, the areas in which our clinical trials could be adversely affected by the outbreak of influenza A (H1N1), avian influenza (H7N9), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) or other pandemics.

Any occurrence of these natural disasters or pandemic diseases or other adverse public health developments in the areas in which we operate our clinical trials could disrupt or delay our business operations or clinical development, which could materially adversely affect our business.

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Our business is subject to economic, political, regulatory and other risks associated with international operations.

As a company based in Singapore with an Asia based development platform, our business is subject to risks associated with conducting business outside of the United States. Many of our suppliers and collaborative and clinical trial relationships are located outside the United States. Accordingly, our future results could be harmed by a variety of factors, including:

More specifically, the economy in Asia differs from most developed markets in many respects, including the level of government involvement, level of development, growth rate, control of foreign exchange, government policy on public order and allocation of resources. In some of the Asian markets, governments continue to play a significant role in regulating industry development by imposing industrial policies. Moreover, some local governments also exercise significant control over the economic growth and public order in their respective jurisdictions through allocating resources, controlling payment of foreign currency-denominated obligations, setting monetary policies, and providing preferential treatment to particular industries or companies. In addition, some Asian markets have experienced, and may in the future experience, political instability, including strikes, demonstrations, protests, marches, coups d’état, guerilla activity or other types of civil disorder. These instabilities and any adverse changes in the political environment could increase our costs, increase our exposure to legal and business risks, or disrupt our clinical operations.

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European data collection is governed by restrictive regulations governing the use, processing, and cross-border transfer of personal information.

The collection and use of personal data in the European Union are governed by the General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR. The GDPR imposes stringent requirements for controllers and processors of personal data, including, for example, more robust disclosures to individuals and a strengthened individual data rights regime, shortened timelines for data breach notifications, limitations on retention of information, increased requirements pertaining to special categories of data, such as health data, and additional obligations when we contract with third-party processors in connection with the processing of the personal data. The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data out of the European Union to the United States and other third countries. In addition, the GDPR provides that European Union member states may make their own further laws and regulations limiting the processing of personal data, including genetic, biometric or health data.

The GDPR applies extraterritorially, and we may be subject to the GDPR because of our data processing activities that involve the personal data of individuals located in the European Union, such as in connection with any European Union clinical trials. Failure to comply with the requirements of the GDPR and the applicable national data protection laws of the European Union member states may result in fines of up to €20,000,000 or up to 4% of the total worldwide annual turnover of the preceding financial year, whichever is higher, and other administrative penalties. GDPR regulations may impose additional responsibility and liability in relation to the personal data that we process and we may be required to put in place additional mechanisms to ensure compliance with the new data protection rules. This may be onerous and may interrupt or delay our development activities, and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

If we are unable to obtain or protect intellectual property rights related to our current product candidates or any future product candidates which we may develop, we may not be able to compete effectively in our market.

We rely upon a combination of patents, trade secret protection, confidentiality agreements and proprietary know-how, and intend to seek marketing exclusivity for any approved product, in order to protect the intellectual property related to product candidates. The strength of patents in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical field involves complex legal and scientific questions and can be uncertain. The patent applications that we own or in-license may fail to result in issued patents with claims that cover our product candidates in the United States or in other foreign countries for a number of reasons, including because of a finding of lack of novelty or that the claimed inventions are already in the public domain. If this were to occur, early generic competition could be expected against our product candidates. Even if patents do successfully issue, third parties may challenge their validity, enforceability or scope, which may result in such patents being invalidated or deemed as not infringing. Also, a third party may challenge our ownership of patents and patent applications assigned to us, or may challenge our exclusive rights to patents and patent applications that we license from third parties. Furthermore, even if they are unchallenged, our patents and patent applications may not adequately protect our intellectual property or prevent others from designing around our claims. If the patent applications we hold with respect to our other product candidates fail to issue or if their breadth or strength of protection is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to develop them, and threaten our ability to commercialize any resulting products. We cannot offer any assurances about which, if any, applications will issue as patents or whether any issued patents will be found not invalid and not unenforceable or will go unthreatened by third parties. Further, if we encounter delays in regulatory approvals, the period of time during which we could market our product candidates under patent protection could be reduced. Furthermore, patent applications by third parties can result in an interference proceeding in the United States being invoked by a third party or instituted by us to determine who was the first to invent any of the subject matter covered by the patent claims of our applications or patents.

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In addition to the protection afforded by patents, we rely on trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect proprietary know-how that is not patentable, processes for which patents are difficult to enforce and any other elements of our drug development process that involve proprietary know-how, information or technology that is not covered by patents. Although we generally require all of our employees to assign their inventions to us, and all of our employees, consultants, advisors and any third parties who have access to our proprietary know-how, information or technology to enter into confidentiality agreements, we cannot provide any assurances that all such agreements have been duly executed or that our trade secrets and other confidential proprietary information will not be disclosed or that competitors will not otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or independently develop substantially equivalent information and techniques. If we are unable to prevent material disclosure of the non-patented intellectual property related to our technologies to third parties, and there is no guarantee that we will have any such enforceable trade secret protection, we may not be able to establish or maintain a competitive advantage in our market, which could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

We may not be able to protect our intellectual property and proprietary rights throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting, and defending patents on product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and the laws of foreign countries may not protect our rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in all countries outside the United States, or from selling or importing products made using our inventions in and into the United States or other jurisdictions. Competitors may use our technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection but enforcement is not as strong as that in the United States. These products may compete with our products, and our patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents, trade secrets, and other intellectual property protection, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our intellectual property and proprietary rights generally. Proceedings to enforce our intellectual property and proprietary rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly, could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing, and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate, and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property and proprietary rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

Several countries have compulsory licensing laws under which, in certain circumstances, a patent owner may be compelled to grant licenses to third parties. In addition, many countries limit the enforceability of patents against government agencies or government contractors. In these countries, the patent owner may have limited remedies, which could materially diminish the value of such patent. If we or any of our licensors is forced to grant a license to third parties with respect to any patents relevant to our business, our competitive position may be impaired, and our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects may be adversely affected.

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In China, the validity, enforceability and scope of protection available under the relevant intellectual property laws are uncertain and still evolving. Implementation and enforcement of Chinese intellectual property-related laws have historically been inconsistent. Accordingly, intellectual property and confidentiality legal regimes in China may not afford protection to the same extent as in the United States or other countries. Policing unauthorized use of proprietary technology is difficult and expensive, and we may need to resort to litigation to enforce or defend patents issued to us or to determine the enforceability, scope and validity of our proprietary rights or those of others. The experience and capabilities of Chinese courts in handling intellectual property litigation varies, and outcomes are unpredictable. Further, such litigation may require a significant expenditure of cash and may divert management’s attention from our operations, which could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. An adverse determination in any such litigation could materially impair our intellectual property rights and may harm our business, prospects and reputation in China.

If we fail to comply with our obligations in the agreements under which we license rights to technology from third parties, or if the license agreements are terminated for other reasons, we could lose license rights that are important to our business.

We are a party to a number of technology licenses that are important to our business and expect to enter into additional licenses in the future. For example, our rights to varlitinib are the subject of an exclusive license agreement with Array. If we fail to comply with our obligations under our agreement with Array (including, among other things, if we fail to use commercially reasonable efforts to develop and commercialize varlitinib) or our other license agreements, or we are subject to insolvency or liquidation, the licensor may have the right to terminate the license. In addition, under our agreement with Array, in the event of a change of control, we may be required to make additional payment to Array if the change of control meets specified conditions. In the event that any of our important technology licenses were to be terminated by the licensor, we would likely cease further development of the related program. See “Item 4.B. Information on the Company - Business overview—License and Collaboration Agreements” for a description of our license agreements, which includes a description of the termination provisions of these agreements.

We are generally also subject to all of the same risks with respect to protection of intellectual property that we license, as we are for intellectual property that we own, which are described elsewhere under “Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property.” If we or our licensors fail to adequately protect this intellectual property, our ability to commercialize products could suffer.

Third-party claims of intellectual property infringement may prevent or delay our development and commercialization efforts.

Our commercial success depends in part on our avoiding infringement of the patents and proprietary rights of third parties. There is a substantial amount of litigation, both within and outside the United States, involving patent and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, including patent infringement lawsuits, interferences, oppositions and inter party reexamination proceedings before the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or the USPTO. Numerous U.S. and foreign issued patents and pending patent applications, which are owned by third parties, exist in the fields in which we and our collaborators are developing product candidates. As the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries expand and more patents are issued, the risk increases that our product candidates may be subject to claims of infringement of the patent rights of third parties.

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Third parties may assert that we are employing their proprietary technology without authorization. There may be third-party patents or patent applications with claims to materials, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the use or manufacture of our product candidates. Because patent applications can take many years to issue, there may be currently pending patent applications which may later result in issued patents that our product candidates may infringe. In addition, third parties may obtain patents in the future and claim that use of our technologies infringes upon these patents. If any third-party patents were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover the manufacturing process of any of our product candidates, any drug substance formed during the manufacturing process or any final product itself, the holders of any such patents may be able to block our ability to commercialize such product candidate unless we obtain a license under the applicable patents, or until such patents are invalidated or expire. Similarly, if any third-party patent were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover aspects of our formulations or methods of use, the holders of any such patent may be able to block our ability to develop and commercialize the applicable product candidate formulation or use unless we obtain a license or until such patent expires. In either case, such a license may not be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all.

Parties making claims against us may request and/or obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize one or more of our product candidates. Defense of these claims, regardless of their merit, would involve substantial litigation expense and would be a substantial diversion of employee resources from our business. In the event of a successful claim of infringement against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees for willful infringement, obtain one or more licenses from third parties, pay royalties or redesign our infringing products or manufacturing processes, which may be impossible or require substantial time and monetary expenditure. We cannot predict whether any such license would be available at all or whether it would be available on commercially reasonable terms. Furthermore, even in the absence of litigation, we may need to obtain licenses from third parties to advance our research, manufacture clinical trial supplies or allow commercialization of our product candidates. We may fail to obtain any of these licenses at a reasonable cost or on reasonable terms, if at all. In that event, we would be unable to further develop and commercialize one or more of our product candidates, which could harm our business significantly. We cannot provide any assurances that third-party patents do not exist which might be enforced against our products, resulting in either an injunction prohibiting our sales, or, with respect to our sales, an obligation on our part to pay royalties and/or other forms of compensation to third parties.

We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or the patents of our licensors, which could be expensive, time consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe our patents or the patents of our licensors. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time-consuming. In addition, in an infringement proceeding, a court may decide that a patent of ours or our licensors is not valid or is unenforceable, or may refuse to stop the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question. An adverse result in any litigation or defense proceedings could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing.

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Interference proceedings provoked by third parties or brought by us may be necessary to determine the priority of inventions with respect to our patents or patent applications or those of our collaborators or licensors. An unfavorable outcome could require us to cease using the related technology or to attempt to license rights to it from the prevailing party. Our business could be harmed if the prevailing party does not offer us a license on commercially reasonable terms. Our defense of litigation or interference proceedings may fail and, even if successful, may result in substantial costs and distract our management and other employees. We may not be able to prevent, alone or with our licensors, misappropriation of our intellectual property rights, particularly in countries where the laws may not protect those rights as fully as in the United States.

Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a material adverse effect on the price of our ADSs.

Obtaining and maintaining our patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees on any issued patent are due to be paid to the USPTO and foreign patent agencies in several stages over the lifetime of the patent. The USPTO and various foreign governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other similar provisions during the patent application process. While an inadvertent lapse can in many cases be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules, there are situations in which non-compliance can (i) result in abandonment or lapse of, or (ii) otherwise affect the patentability of, the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. Non-compliance events that could result in abandonment or lapse of a patent or patent application include, but are not limited to, failure to respond to official actions within prescribed time limits, non-payment of fees and failure to properly legalize and submit formal documents. If we or our licensors that control the prosecution and maintenance of our licensed patents fail to maintain the patents and patent applications covering our product candidates, our competitors might be able to enter the market, which would have a material adverse effect on our business.

In addition, as licensees we may not be responsible for or have control over the prosecution or enforceability of our licensed patents. In such cases, we have to rely on the licensor to comply with the requisite obligations of the patent offices, including the duty of disclosure, filing assignments, etc. We cannot guarantee that all of these duties have been or will be complied with. As licensees, we may not be in a position to assess if these duties have been complied with or have the ability to complete these duties on behalf of the licensor. Failure to comply with such duties may affect the enforceability of the patent rights.

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We may be subject to claims that our employees, consultants or independent contractors have wrongfully used or disclosed confidential information of third parties.

We employ individuals who were previously employed at other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies. We may be subject to claims that we or our employees, consultants or independent contractors have inadvertently or otherwise used or disclosed confidential information of our employees’ former employers or other third parties. We may also be subject to claims that former employers or other third parties have an ownership interest in our patents. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. There is no guarantee of success in defending these claims, and if we are successful, litigation could result in substantial cost and be a distraction to our management and other employees.

Although we have obtained orphan drug designation for varlitinib in gastric cancer and cholangiocarcinoma, a form of biliary tract cancer, and for ASLAN003 in AML in the United States, we may not be able to obtain or maintain the benefits associated with orphan drug status, including market exclusivity.

Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the United States and the European Union, may designate drugs for relatively small patient populations as orphan drugs. Under the Orphan Drug Act, the U.S. FDA may designate a drug as an orphan drug if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally defined as a patient population of fewer than 200,000 individuals annually in the United States. We have obtained orphan drug designation for varlitinib in gastric cancer and cholangiocarcinoma from the U.S. FDA, as well as for varlitinib in biliary tract cancer from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety in South Korea. We have also obtained orphan drug designation from the U.S. FDA for ASLAN003 in AML. Generally, if a drug with an orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first marketing approval for the indication for which it has such designation, the drug may be entitled to a period of marketing exclusivity, which precludes the U.S. FDA from approving another marketing application for the same molecule for the same indication for that time period. We can provide no assurance that another drug will not receive marketing approval prior to our product candidates. The applicable period is seven years in the United States and ten years in Japan and the European Union. The exclusivity period in the European Union can be reduced to six years if a drug no longer meets the criteria for orphan drug designation or if the drug is sufficiently profitable so that market exclusivity is no longer justified. Orphan drug exclusivity may be lost if the U.S. FDA determines that the request for designation was materially defective or if the manufacturer is unable to assure sufficient quantity of the drug to meet the needs of patients with the rare disease or condition. In addition, even after a drug is granted orphan exclusivity and approved, the U.S. FDA can subsequently approve another drug for the same condition before the expiration of the seven year exclusivity period if the U.S. FDA, concludes that the later drug is clinically superior in that it is shown to be safer, more effective or makes a major contribution to patient care.

If our trademarks and tradenames are not adequately protected, then we may not be able to build name recognition in our markets and our business may be adversely affected.

We have registered or applied to register certain trademarks to protect our company name and plan to apply to register trademarks to cover product names in the future once our product candidates are closer to commercialization. We cannot assure you that our trademark applications will be approved or that we will seek registered trademark protection for each of our product names in each jurisdiction in which we operate. During trademark registration proceedings, we may receive rejections. Although we are given an opportunity to respond to those rejections, we may be unable to overcome such rejections. In addition, in proceedings before the USPTO and in proceedings before comparable agencies in many foreign jurisdictions, third parties are given an opportunity to oppose pending trademark applications and to seek

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to cancel registered trademarks. Opposition or cancellation proceedings may be filed against our trademarks, and our trademarks may not survive such proceedings. In the event that our trademarks are successfully challenged, we could be forced to rebrand our products, which could result in loss of brand recognition and could require us to devote resources toward advertising and marketing new brands. Further, we cannot assure you that competitors will not infringe our trademarks or that we will have adequate resources to enforce our trademarks.

Risks Related to Commercialization of Our Product Candidates

Our commercial success depends upon attaining significant market acceptance of our product candidates, if approved, among physicians, healthcare payors, patients and the medical community.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, the product may not gain market acceptance among physicians, healthcare payors, patients and the medical community, which is critical to commercial success. Market acceptance of any product candidate for which we receive approval depends on a number of factors, including:

If our product candidates are approved but fail to achieve an adequate level of acceptance by physicians, healthcare payors, patients and the medical community, we will not be able to generate significant revenue, and we may not become or remain profitable. In addition, even if any of our product candidates gain acceptance, the markets for the treatment of patients with our target indications may not be as significant as we estimate.

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Our organization has no prior sales and marketing experience and resources.

We have never, as an organization, commercialized a product and there is no guarantee that we will be able to do so successfully. We will need to establish a commercial team and hire sales forces in the geographies where we are permitted and intend to market our drugs. We will also need to develop a marketing team and strategy in order to successfully market and sell our product candidates, which will require significant time and resources and the development of our ability to market and sell our product and generate revenues from our product candidates may be delayed or limited. We cannot assure you that our sales efforts will be effective or produce the results we expect. We will be competing with other pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies to recruit, hire, train and retain marketing and sales personnel. Further, we may face difficulties or delays in obtaining and maintaining the required licenses and permits to sell our product candidates in individual states and jurisdictions. If our commercialization of varlitinib or our other product candidates is unsuccessful or perceived as disappointing, the price of our ADSs could decline significantly and the long-term success of the product and our company could be harmed.

We may also seek to establish collaborations with pharmaceutical companies to maximize the potential of our products in other markets. For example, we are conducting a Phase 1 clinical trial to develop ASLAN004 in atopic dermatitis, and, in the future, we may seek a global partner to support Phase 3 clinical trials and potential commercialization. We may not be successful in establishing development and commercialization collaborations which could adversely affect, and potentially prohibit, our ability to develop our product candidates.

If our planned targeted commercial organization in the United States and selected Asian markets is not as successful as we anticipate, we may be unable to generate any revenue.

Although we have started building a targeted commercial organization, we currently have a very limited commercial organization and capability, and the cost of establishing and maintaining such an organization may exceed the cost-effectiveness of doing so. In order to market any products that may be approved, we must build sales, marketing, managerial and other non-technical capabilities or make arrangements with third parties to perform these services. We may enter into strategic partnerships with third parties to commercialize our product candidates.

Part of our business strategy is to establish collaborative relationships to commercialize and fund development and approval of certain of our product candidates. We may not succeed in establishing and maintaining collaborative relationships, which may significantly limit our ability to develop and commercialize products, for which we pursue this commercialization strategy.

We will need to establish and maintain successful collaborative relationships to obtain sales, marketing and distribution capabilities for the product candidates we do not intend to commercialize ourselves. The process of establishing and maintaining collaborative relationships is difficult, time-consuming and involves significant uncertainty, including:

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If any collaborator fails to fulfill its responsibilities in a timely manner, or at all, any clinical development, manufacturing or commercialization efforts pursuant to that collaboration could be delayed or terminated, or it may be necessary for us to assume responsibility for expenses or activities that would otherwise have been the responsibility of our collaborator. If we are unable to establish and maintain collaborative relationships on acceptable terms or to successfully and timely transition terminated collaborative agreements, we may have to delay or discontinue further development of one or more of our product candidates, undertake development and commercialization activities at our own expense or find alternative sources of capital.

Attempting to secure additional financing for a product candidate may also lead to the risks discussed under the risk factor titled “We will need to obtain substantial amounts of financing for our operations, and if we fail to obtain additional financing, we may be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our product development programs or commercialization efforts” described above.

We rely completely on third parties to manufacture our preclinical and clinical drug supplies and we intend to rely on third parties to produce commercial supplies of any approved product candidate.

If we were to experience an unexpected loss of supply of our product candidates for any reason, whether as a result of manufacturing, supply or storage issues or otherwise, we could experience delays, disruptions, suspensions or terminations of, or be required to restart or repeat, clinical trials. We do not currently have nor do we plan to acquire the infrastructure or capability internally to manufacture our preclinical and clinical drug supplies and we lack the resources and the capability to manufacture any of our product candidates on a clinical or commercial scale. The facilities used by our contract manufacturers or other third-party manufacturers to manufacture our product candidates must be approved by the U.S. FDA, NMPA or other regulators pursuant to inspections. While we work closely with our third-party manufacturers on the manufacturing process for our product candidates, including quality audits, we generally do not control the implementation of the manufacturing process of, and are completely dependent on, our contract manufacturers or other third-party manufacturers for compliance with cGMP regulatory requirements and for manufacture of both active drug substances and finished drug products. If our contract manufacturers or other third-party manufacturers cannot successfully manufacture material that conforms to applicable specifications and the strict regulatory requirements of the U.S. FDA, NMPA or other regulators, they will not be able to secure and/or maintain regulatory approval for their manufacturing facilities. In addition, we have no control over the ability of our contract manufacturers or other third-party manufacturers to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance and qualified personnel. If the U.S. FDA, NMPA or other regulators do not approve these facilities for the manufacture of our product candidates or if they withdraw any such approval in the future, we may need to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which could take several years and would significantly impact our ability to develop, obtain regulatory approval for or market our product candidates, if approved.

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We rely on our manufacturers to purchase from third-party suppliers the materials necessary to produce our product candidates for our clinical trials. There are a limited number of suppliers for raw materials that we use to manufacture our product candidates and there may be a need to assess alternate suppliers to prevent a possible disruption of the manufacture of the materials necessary to produce our product candidates for our clinical trials, and if approved, for commercial sale. We do not have any control over the process or timing of the acquisition of these raw materials by our manufacturers. Although we generally do not begin a clinical trial unless we believe we have a sufficient supply of a product candidate to complete the clinical trial, any significant delay in the supply of a product candidate, or the raw material components thereof, for an ongoing clinical trial due to the need to replace a contract manufacturer or other third-party manufacturer could considerably delay completion of our clinical trials, product testing and potential regulatory approval of our product candidates. If our manufacturers or we are unable to purchase these raw materials after regulatory approval has been obtained for our product candidates, the commercial launch of our product candidates would be delayed or there would be a shortage in supply, which would impair our ability to generate revenue from the sale of our product candidates.

We expect to continue to depend on contract manufacturers or other third-party manufacturers for the foreseeable future, and our requirements for and dependence upon these third-party manufacturers will increase when and if one or more of our product candidates is approved and commercialized. We have not entered into any long-term commercial supply agreements with our current contract manufacturers or with any alternate contract manufacturers. Although we intend to do so prior to any commercial launch of our product candidates, if approved by the U.S. FDA, in order to ensure that we maintain adequate supplies of finished drug product, we may be unable to enter into such an agreement or do so on commercially reasonable terms, which could have a material adverse impact upon our business, including delaying a product launch or subjecting our commercialization efforts to significant supply risk. Even if we are able to enter into long-term agreements with manufacturers for commercial supply on reasonable terms, we may be unable to do so with sufficient time prior to the launch of our product candidates, which would expose us to substantial supply risk and potentially jeopardize our launch. See “Item 4.B. Information on the Company - Business overview—Manufacturing” for additional information.

Manufacturing issues may arise that could increase product and regulatory approval costs or delay commercialization.

As we scale up manufacturing of our product candidates and conduct required stability testing, product, packaging, equipment and process-related issues may require refinement or resolution in order to proceed with our planned clinical trials and obtain regulatory approval for commercial marketing. In the future, we may identify impurities, which could result in increased scrutiny by the regulatory agencies, delays in our clinical program and regulatory approval, increases in our operating expenses, or failure to obtain or maintain approval for our product candidates.

Guidelines and recommendations published by various organizations can reduce the use of our product candidates.

Government agencies promulgate regulations and guidelines directly applicable to us and to our product candidates. In addition, professional societies, such as practice management groups, private health and science foundations and organizations involved in various diseases from time to time may also publish guidelines or recommendations to the healthcare and patient communities. Recommendations of government agencies or these other groups or organizations may relate to such matters as usage, dosage, route of administration and use of concomitant therapies. Recommendations or guidelines suggesting the reduced use of our product candidates or the use of competitive or alternative products as the standard of care to be followed by patients and healthcare providers could result in decreased use of our product candidates.

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We face significant competition from other biopharmaceutical companies, and our operating results will suffer if we fail to compete effectively.

Our industry is intensely competitive and subject to rapid and significant technological change. While we believe that our Asia based development platform, knowledge, experience and scientific resources provide us with competitive advantages, we face substantial competition from multinational pharmaceutical companies, specialty pharmaceutical companies and biotechnology companies, universities and other research institutions worldwide. For example, there are several targeted therapies currently in clinical development targeting specific subsets of biliary tract cancer, including ivosidenib being developed by Agios Pharmaceuticals, Inc., ARQ087 being developed by Arqule, Inc. and lenvatinib being developed by Eisai Inc.

Many of our competitors have significantly greater financial, clinical and human resources. Additionally, small and early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. As a result, our competitors may discover, develop, license or commercialize products before or more successfully than we do. Competition may increase further as a result of advances in the commercial applicability of technologies and greater availability of capital for investment in these industries. Our competitors may succeed in developing, acquiring or licensing on an exclusive basis drug products or drug delivery technologies that are more effective or less costly than our product candidates that we are currently developing or that we may develop.

We believe that our ability to successfully compete will depend on, among other things:

If our competitors market products that are more effective, safer or less expensive than our future products, if any, or that reach the market sooner than our future products, if any, we may not achieve commercial success. Because we have limited research and development capabilities, it may be difficult for us to stay abreast of the rapid changes in technology. If we fail to stay at the forefront of technological change, we may be unable to compete effectively. Technological advances or products developed by our competitors may render our technologies or product candidates obsolete, less competitive or not economical.

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Price controls may adversely affect our future profitability.

In certain countries, prescription drug pricing and reimbursement is subject to governmental control. In those countries that impose price controls, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after the receipt of marketing approval for a product. To obtain reimbursement or pricing approval in some countries, we or our strategic partners may be required to conduct a clinical trial that compares the cost-effectiveness of our product candidates to other available therapies.

Some countries require approval of the sale price of a drug before it can be marketed. In many countries, the pricing review period begins after marketing or product licensing approval is granted. In certain markets, prescription pharmaceutical pricing remains subject to continuing governmental control even after initial approval is granted. As a result, we or our strategic partners might obtain marketing approval for a product candidate in a particular country, but then be subject to price regulations that delay commercial launch of the product candidate, possibly for lengthy time periods, and negatively impact the revenue that we generate from the sale of the product in that country. If reimbursement of such product candidates is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, or if there is competition from lower priced cross-border sales, our profitability will be negatively affected.

Legislative or regulatory healthcare reforms may make it more difficult and costly for us to obtain regulatory clearance or approval of our product candidates and to produce, market and distribute our products after clearance or approval is obtained.

From time to time, legislation is drafted and introduced that could significantly change the statutory provisions governing the regulatory clearance or approval, manufacture and marketing of regulated products or the reimbursement thereof. In addition, U.S. FDA regulations and guidance are often revised or reinterpreted by the U.S. FDA in ways that may significantly affect our business and our products. Any new regulations or revisions or reinterpretations of existing regulations may impose additional costs or lengthen review times of our product candidates. We cannot determine what effect changes in regulations, statutes, legal interpretation or policies, when and if promulgated, enacted or adopted may have on our business in the future. Such changes could, among other things, require:

Each of these would likely entail substantial time and cost and could harm our business and our financial results.

In addition, in the United States, there have been a number of legislative and regulatory proposals to change the health care system in ways that could affect our ability to sell our products profitably. The pharmaceutical industry in the United States, as an example, has been affected by the passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, collectively PPACA, which, among other things, imposed new fees on entities that manufacture or import certain branded prescription drugs and expanded pharmaceutical manufacturer obligations to provide discounts and rebates to certain government programs. Since its enactment, there have been judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of PPACA, as well as recent efforts by the Trump administration to repeal or replace certain aspects of PPACA. Since January 2017, President Trump has signed two Executive Orders and other directives designed to delay the implementation of

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certain provisions of PPACA or otherwise circumvent some of the requirements for health insurance mandated by PPACA. In addition, The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, or CMS, an agency within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS, recently published a final rule that will give states greater flexibility in setting benchmarks for insurers in the individual and small group marketplaces, which may have the effect of relaxing the essential health benefits required under the PPACA marketplaces. Further, Congress has considered legislation that would repeal or repeal and replace all or part of the PPACA. While Congress has not passed comprehensive repeal legislation, two bills affecting the implementation of certain taxes under the PPACA have been signed into law. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, or Tax Act, includes a provision that repealed, effective January 1, 2019, the tax-based shared responsibility payment imposed by the PPACA on certain individuals who fail to maintain qualifying health coverage for all or part of a year that is commonly referred to as the “individual mandate”. On January 22, 2018, President Trump signed a continuing resolution on appropriations for the year ended 2018 that delayed the implementation of certain PPACA-mandated fees, including the so-called “Cadillac” tax on certain high cost employer-sponsored insurance plans, the annual fee imposed on certain health insurance providers based on market share, and the medical device excise tax on non-exempt medical devices. The Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, or the BBA, among other things, amended the PPACA, effective January 1, 2019, to increase from 50 percent to 70 percent the point-of-sale discount that is owed by pharmaceutical manufacturers who participate in Medicare Part D and to close the coverage gap in most Medicare drug plans, commonly referred to as the “donut hole.” In July 2018, CMS published a final rule permitting further collections and payments to and from certain PPACA qualified health plans and health insurance issuers under the PPACA risk adjustment program in response to the outcome of federal district court litigation regarding the method CMS uses to determine this risk adjustment. On December 14, 2018, a U.S. District Court Judge in the Northern District of Texas, or Texas District Court Judge, ruled that the individual mandate is a critical and inseverable feature of the PPACA, and therefore, because it was repealed as part of the Tax Act, the remaining provisions of the PPACA are invalid as well. While the Texas District Court Judge, as well as the Trump Administration and CMS, have stated that the ruling will have no immediate effect, it is unclear how this decision, subsequent appeals, , and other efforts to repeal and replace the PPACA will impact the PPACA and our business.

Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted in the United States since the PPACA was enacted. For example, in August 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011, among other things, created measures for spending reductions by U.S. Congress. A Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction, tasked with recommending a targeted deficit reduction of at least $1.2 trillion for the years 2012 through 2021, was unable to reach required goals, thereby triggering the legislation’s automatic reduction to several government programs. This includes aggregate reductions of Medicare payments to providers of up to 2% per fiscal year, which went into effect in April 2013 and, due to subsequent legislative amendments to the statute, including the BBA, will remain in effect through 2027 unless additional Congressional action is taken. In January 2013, the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to certain providers, and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years.

Further, there has been particular and increasing legislative and enforcement interest in the United States with respect to drug pricing practices in recent years, particularly with respect to drugs that have been subject to relatively large price increases over relatively short time periods. There have been several recent Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. At the federal level, the Trump administration’s budget proposal for the year ended 2019 contains further drug price control measures that could be enacted during the 2019 budget process or in other future legislation, including, for example, measures to permit Medicare Part D plans to negotiate the price of

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certain drugs under Medicare Part B, to allow some states to negotiate drug prices under Medicaid, and to eliminate cost sharing for generic drugs for low-income patients. Additionally, the Trump administration released a “Blueprint” to lower drug prices and reduce out of pocket costs of drugs that contains additional proposals to increase manufacturer competition, increase the negotiating power of certain federal healthcare programs, incentivize manufacturers to lower the list price of their products and reduce the out of pocket costs of drug products paid by consumers. HHS has already started the process of soliciting feedback on some of these measures and, at the same, is immediately implementing others under its existing authority. For example, in September 2018, CMS announced that it will allow Medicare Advantage Plans the option to use step therapy for Part B drugs beginning January 1, 2019, and in October 2018, CMS proposed a new rule that would require direct-to-consumer television advertisements of prescription drugs and biological products, for which payment is available through or under Medicare or Medicaid, to include in the advertisement the Wholesale Acquisition Cost, or list price, of that drug or biological product.

In addition, on January 31, 2019, the HHS Office of Inspector General, proposed modifications to the U.S. Anti-Kickback Statute discount safe harbor for the purpose of reducing the cost of drug products to consumers which, among other things, if finalized, will affect discounts paid by manufacturers to Medicare Part D plans, Medicaid managed care organizations and pharmacy benefit managers working with these organizations. Although a number of these, and other proposed, measures will require additional authorization to become effective, Congress and the Trump administration have each indicated that it will continue to seek new legislative and/or administrative measures to control drug costs. At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing.

Additionally, on May 30, 2018, the Trickett Wendler, Frank Mongiello, Jordan McLinn, and Matthew Bellina Right to Try Act of 2017, or the Right to Try Act, was signed into law. The law, among other things, provides a federal framework for certain patients to access certain investigational new drug products that have completed a Phase I clinical trial and that are undergoing investigation for FDA approval. Under certain circumstances, eligible patients can seek treatment without enrolling in clinical trials and without obtaining FDA permission under the FDA expanded access program. There is no obligation for a pharmaceutical manufacturer to make its drug products available to eligible patients as a result of the Right to Try Act.

In the future, there will likely continue to be proposals relating to the reform of the U.S. healthcare system, some of which could further limit coverage and reimbursement of drug products, including our product candidates.

Any reduction in reimbursement from Medicare or other government programs may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payors. Our results of operations could be adversely affected by PPACA and by other health care reforms that may be enacted or adopted in the future.

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It may be difficult for us to profitably sell any future products that may be approved if coverage and reimbursement for these products is limited by government authorities and/or third-party payor policies.

In addition to any healthcare reform measures which may affect reimbursement, market acceptance and sales of our product candidates, if approved, will depend on, in part, the extent to which our products, and the procedures which utilize our products, will be covered by third-party payors, such as government health care programs, commercial insurance and managed care organizations. These third-party payors determine the extent to which new drugs, and the procedures which utilize new drugs, will be covered as a benefit under their plans and the level of reimbursement for any covered product and procedures utilizing such products. It is difficult to predict at this time what third-party payors will decide with respect to the coverage and reimbursement for our product candidates, and the procedures which utilize our product candidates.

A primary trend in the healthcare industry has been cost containment, including price controls, restrictions on coverage and reimbursement and requirements for substitution of generic products and/or biosimilars. Third-party payors decide which drugs, and procedures using such drugs, they will pay for and establish reimbursement and co-payment levels. Government and other third-party payors are increasingly challenging the prices charged for health care products and services, examining the cost effectiveness of drugs in addition to their safety and efficacy, and limiting or attempting to limit both coverage and the level of reimbursement for prescription drugs and the procedures which utilize prescription drugs. We cannot be sure that coverage will be available for our product candidates, and the procedures which utilize our product candidates, if approved, or, if coverage is available, the level of reimbursement.

There is significant uncertainty related to the insurance coverage and reimbursement of newly approved products, and the procedures which utilize such products. In the United States, the principal decisions about reimbursement for new medicines, and the procedures which utilize new medicines, are typically made by CMS, as CMS decides whether and to what extent a new medicine, and procedures which utilize a new medicine, will be covered and reimbursed under Medicare. Private payors may follow CMS, but have their own methods and approval processes for determining reimbursement for new medicines, and the procedures that utilize new medicines. It is difficult to predict what CMS or other payors will decide with respect to reimbursement for fundamentally novel products such as ours, as there is no body of established practices and precedents for these new products.

Reimbursement may impact the demand for, and/or the price of, any product for which we obtain marketing approval. Assuming we obtain coverage for a given product, or a procedure which utilizes a given product, by a third-party payor, the resulting reimbursement payment rates may not be adequate or may require co-payments that patients find unacceptably high. Patients who are prescribed medications and procedures for the treatment of their conditions, and their prescribing physicians, generally rely on third-party payors to reimburse all or part of the costs associated with those prescription drugs and procedures. Patients are unlikely to use our products, or agree to procedures utilizing our products, unless coverage is provided and reimbursement is adequate to cover all or a significant portion of the associated costs. Therefore, coverage and adequate reimbursement is critical to new product acceptance. Coverage decisions may depend upon clinical and economic standards that disfavor new drug products when more established or lower cost therapeutic alternatives are already available or subsequently become available. There may be significant delays in obtaining coverage and reimbursement for newly approved drugs, and the procedures which utilize newly approved drugs, and coverage may be more limited than the purposes for which such drug is approved by the U.S. FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities.

Moreover, eligibility for coverage and reimbursement does not imply that a drug will be paid for in all cases or at a rate that covers our costs, including research, development, manufacture, sale and distribution.

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We expect to experience pricing pressures in connection with the sale of any of our product candidates due to the trend toward managed healthcare, the increasing influence of health maintenance organizations, and additional legislative changes. The downward pressure on healthcare costs in general, particularly prescription drugs, medical devices and surgical procedures and other treatments, has become very intense. As a result, increasingly high barriers are being erected to the successful commercialization of new products. Further, the adoption and implementation of any future governmental cost containment or other health reform initiative may result in additional downward pressure on the price that we may receive for any approved product. Reimbursement by a third-party payor may depend upon a number of factors including the third-party payor’s determination that use of a product is:

Obtaining coverage and reimbursement approval for a product, or a procedure which utilizes a product, from a government or other third-party payor is a time-consuming and costly process that could require us to provide supporting scientific, clinical and cost effectiveness data for the use of our products, and the procedures which utilize our products, to the payor. Further, no uniform policy requirement for coverage and reimbursement for drug products, and procedures which utilize drug products, exists among third-party payors in the United States. Therefore, coverage and reimbursement for drug products, and the procedures which utilize drug products, can differ significantly from payor to payor. As a result, the coverage determination process may require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be applied consistently or obtained in the first instance. We may not be able to provide data sufficient to gain acceptance with respect to coverage and/or sufficient reimbursement levels. We cannot be sure that coverage or adequate reimbursement will be available for our product candidates, or the procedures which utilize our product candidates, if approved. Also, we cannot be sure that reimbursement amounts will not reduce the demand for, or the price of, our future products. If reimbursement is not available, or is available only to limited levels, we may not be able to commercialize our product candidates, or achieve profitably at all, even if approved.

Reimbursement may not be immediately available for our product candidates in China, which could diminish our sales or affect our profitability.

In China, the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security of China or provincial or local human resources and social security authorities, together with other government authorities, review the inclusion or removal of drugs from China’s National Drug Catalog for Basic Medical Insurance, Work-related Injury Insurance and Maternity Insurance, or the National Reimbursement Drug List, or the NRDL, or provincial or local medical insurance catalogues for the National Medical Insurance Program regularly, and the tier under which a drug will be classified, both of which affect the amounts reimbursable to program participants for their purchases of those drugs. These determinations are made based on a number of factors, including price and efficacy.

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We may be subject, directly or indirectly, to federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws, false claims laws and health information privacy and security laws. If we are unable to comply, or have not fully complied, with such laws, we could face substantial penalties.

Our current and future operations may be directly or indirectly through our relationships with healthcare providers, patients and other persons and entities, subject to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we research, market, sell and distribute our products. In addition, we may be subject to patient privacy regulation by both the federal government and the states in which we conduct our business. The laws that may affect our ability to operate include:

The U.S. Anti-Kickback Statute prohibits, among other things, any person or entity from knowingly and willfully offering, paying, soliciting, receiving or providing any remuneration, directly or indirectly, overtly or covertly, to induce or in return for purchasing, leasing, ordering or arranging for or recommending the purchase, lease or order of any item or service reimbursable, in whole or in part, under Medicare, Medicaid or other U.S. federal healthcare programs. The U.S. Anti-Kickback Statute has been interpreted to apply to arrangements between pharmaceutical manufacturers on the one hand and prescribers, purchasers, and formulary managers, among others, on the other. There are a number of statutory exceptions and regulatory safe harbors protecting some common activities from prosecution.

The U.S. federal false claims and civil monetary penalties laws, including the False Claims Act, or FCA, which prohibit any person or entity from, among other things, knowingly presenting, or causing to be presented, a false, fictitious or fraudulent claim for payment to, or approval by, the U.S. federal government or knowingly making, using or causing to be made or used a false record or statement material to a false or fraudulent claim to the U.S. federal government. As a result of a modification made by the Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009, a claim includes “any request or demand” for money or property presented to the U.S. government. In addition, manufacturers can be held liable under the FCA even when they do not submit claims directly to government third-party payors if they are deemed to “cause” the submission of false or fraudulent claims. The FCA also permits a private individual acting as a “whistleblower” to bring actions on behalf of the federal government alleging violations of the FCA and to share in any monetary recovery. FCA liability is potentially significant in the healthcare industry because the statute provides for treble damages and mandatory penalties per false claim or statement. Government enforcement agencies and private whistleblowers have investigated pharmaceutical companies for or asserted liability under the FCA for a variety of alleged promotional and marketing activities, such as providing free product to customers with the expectation that the customers would bill federal programs for the product; providing consulting fees and other benefits to physicians to induce them to prescribe products; engaging in promotion for “off-label” uses; and submitting inflated best price information to the Medicaid Rebate Program.

HIPAA prohibits, among other actions, knowingly and willfully executing, or attempting to execute, a scheme to defraud any healthcare benefit program, including private third-party payors, knowingly and willfully embezzling or stealing from a healthcare benefit program, willfully obstructing a criminal investigation of a healthcare offense, and knowingly and willfully falsifying, concealing or covering up a material fact or making any materially false, fictitious or fraudulent statement in connection with the delivery of or payment for healthcare benefits, items or services.

The Physician Payments Sunshine Act, enacted as part of PPACA, imposes, among other things, annual reporting requirements for covered manufacturers for certain payments and “transfers of value” provided to physicians and teaching hospitals, as well as ownership and investment interests held by physicians and their immediate family members.

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HIPAA, as amended by HITECH, and their respective implementing regulations, impose, among other things, specified requirements relating to the privacy, security and transmission of individually identifiable health information held by covered entities, which include certain healthcare providers, health plans and healthcare clearinghouses, and their business associates, which include individuals or entities that perform services for covered entities that involve the creation, use, maintenance or disclosure of, individually identifiable health information. HITECH also created new tiers of civil monetary penalties, amended HIPAA to make civil and criminal penalties directly applicable to business associates, and gave state attorneys general new authority to file civil actions for damages or injunctions in U.S. federal courts to enforce the federal HIPAA laws and seek attorneys’ fees and costs associated with pursuing federal civil actions. In addition, state laws govern the privacy and security of health information in specified circumstances, many of which differ from each other in significant ways and may not have the same effect, thus complicating compliance efforts.

Many U.S. states and other foreign jurisdictions have analogous laws and regulations, such as state anti-kickback and false claims laws, that may apply to sales or marketing arrangements and claims involving healthcare items or services reimbursed by non-governmental third-party payors, including private insurers. In addition, certain states require drug manufacturers to report information related to payments and other transfers of value to physicians and other healthcare providers or marketing expenditures and certain states and local jurisdictions require the registration of pharmaceutical sales representatives.

Because of the breadth of these laws and the narrowness of the statutory exceptions and regulatory safe harbors available, it is possible that some of our business activities could be subject to challenge under one or more of such laws. In addition, recent health care reform legislation has strengthened these laws. For example, recent health care reform legislation, has among other things, amended the intent requirement of the U.S. Anti-Kickback Statute and criminal healthcare fraud statutes. A person or entity no longer needs to have actual knowledge of this statute or specific intent to violate it in order to have committed a violation. Moreover, recent health care reform legislation provides that the government may assert that a claim including items or services resulting from a violation of the U.S. Anti-Kickback Statute constitutes a false or fraudulent claim for purposes of the FCA.

Ensuring that our business arrangements with third parties comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will likely be costly. It is possible that governmental authorities will conclude that our business practices do not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations were found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other governmental regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, imprisonment, possible exclusion from government funded healthcare programs, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, additional reporting obligations and oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or other agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws, and curtailment of our operations, any of which could substantially disrupt our operations. If the physicians or other providers or entities with whom we expect to do business are found not to be in compliance with applicable laws, they may be subject to criminal, civil or administrative sanctions, including exclusions from government funded healthcare programs.

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We are subject to U.S. and foreign anti-corruption and anti-money laundering laws with respect to our operations and non-compliance with such laws can subject us to criminal and/or civil liability and harm our business.

We are subject to the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, as amended, or the FCPA, the U.S. domestic bribery statute contained in 18 U.S.C. § 201, the U.S. Travel Act, the USA PATRIOT Act, and possibly other state and national anti-bribery and anti-money laundering laws in countries in which we conduct activities. Anti-corruption laws are interpreted broadly and prohibit companies and their employees, agents, third-party intermediaries, joint venture partners and collaborators from authorizing, promising, offering, or providing, directly or indirectly, improper payments or benefits to recipients in the public or private sector. We engage third party investigators, CROs, and other consultants to design and perform preclinical studies of our product candidates, and will do the same for any clinical trials. Also, once a product candidate has been approved and commercialized, we may engage third party intermediaries to promote and sell our products abroad and/or to obtain necessary permits, licenses, and other regulatory approvals. We or our third-party intermediaries may have direct or indirect interactions with officials and employees of government agencies or state-owned or affiliated entities. We can be held liable for the corrupt or other illegal activities of these third-party intermediaries, our employees, representatives, contractors, collaborators, partners, and agents, even if we do not explicitly authorize or have actual knowledge of such activities.

Noncompliance with anti-corruption and anti-money laundering laws could subject us to whistleblower complaints, investigations, sanctions, settlements, prosecution, other enforcement actions, disgorgement of profits, significant fines, damages, other civil and criminal penalties or injunctions, suspension and/or debarment from contracting with certain persons, the loss of export privileges, reputational harm, adverse media coverage, and other collateral consequences. If any subpoenas, investigations, or other enforcement actions are launched, or governmental or other sanctions are imposed, or if we do not prevail in any possible civil or criminal litigation, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially harmed. In addition, responding to any action will likely result in a materially significant diversion of management’s attention and resources and significant defense and compliance costs and other professional fees. In certain cases, enforcement authorities may even cause us to appoint an independent compliance monitor which can result in added costs and administrative burdens.

The incidence and prevalence for target patient populations of our product candidates are based on estimates and third-party sources. If the market opportunities for our product candidates are smaller than we estimate or if any approval that we obtain is based on a narrower definition of the patient population, our revenue and ability to achieve profitability might be materially and adversely affected.

Periodically, we make estimates regarding the incidence and prevalence of target patient populations for particular diseases based on various third-party sources and internally generated analysis and use such estimates in making decisions regarding our drug development strategy, including acquiring or in-licensing product candidates and determining indications on which to focus in preclinical or clinical trials.

These estimates may be inaccurate or based on imprecise data. For example, the total addressable market opportunity will depend on, among other things, acceptance of our drugs by the medical community and patient access, drug pricing and reimbursement. The number of patients in the addressable markets may turn out to be lower than expected, patients may not be otherwise amenable to treatment with our drugs, or new patients may become increasingly difficult to identify or gain access to, all of which may significantly harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

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Risks Related to our ADSs

The price of our ADSs may be volatile and may fluctuate due to factors beyond our control.

The trading market for publicly traded emerging biopharmaceutical and drug discovery and development companies has been highly volatile and is likely to remain highly volatile in the future. The market price of our ADSs may fluctuate significantly due to a variety of factors, including:

These and other market and industry factors may cause the market price and demand for our ADSs to fluctuate substantially, regardless of our actual operating performance, which may limit or prevent investors from readily selling their ADSs and may otherwise negatively affect the liquidity of our ADSs. In addition, the stock market in general, and biopharmaceutical companies in particular, have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of these companies. In the past, when the market price of a security has been volatile, holders of that security have sometimes instituted securities class action litigation against the issuer. If any of the holders of our ADSs were to bring such a lawsuit against us, we could incur substantial costs defending the lawsuit and the attention of our senior management would be diverted from the operation of our business. Any adverse determination in litigation could also subject us to significant liabilities.

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Restrictions on the ability to deposit our ordinary shares into our American depositary receipt facility may adversely affect the liquidity of our ADSs.

The ability to deposit our ordinary shares into our American depositary receipt facility for the issuance of ADSs is restricted by Republic of China, or ROC, law, which may adversely affect the liquidity of our ADSs. Under current ROC law and the Deposit Agreement, no person or entity, including the holders of ADSs and us, may deposit our ordinary shares in our American depositary receipt facility for the issuance of ADRs without specific approval of the Financial Supervisory Commission, or FSC, unless:

With respect to (iii) above, the depositary may issue ADSs against the deposit of those shares only if the total number of ADSs outstanding following the deposit will not exceed the number of ADSs previously approved by the FSC, plus any ADSs issued pursuant to the events described in items (i) and (ii) above. Issuance of additional ADSs under item (iii) above will be permitted to the extent that a corresponding number of previous ADSs have been cancelled.

The price of our ADSs may be limited by the trading price of our ordinary shares on the TPEx.

Our ordinary shares have been listed on the TPEx since June 1, 2017 under the code “6497.” From May 4, 2018 through April 22, 2019, the closing price of our ordinary shares on the TPEx ranged from NT$20.25 per share to NT$49.85 per share (which would be approximately $0.66 per share to $1.62 per share, based on the exchange rate in effect as of April 22, 2019).  During the same period, the closing price of our ADSs on The Nasdaq Global Market ranged from $2.86 per ADS to $10.24 per ADS.  The TPEx sets certain limitations on the trading volatility of our ordinary shares and there is currently a ten percent limit on the daily price movement on the TPEx. As a result of these limitations, the potential increase in trading price of any ADSs may be materially limited based on the perceived value of our ordinary shares on the TPEx. Similarly, decreases in the trading price of our ordinary shares on the TPEx due to the perceptions of investors in that market, which may be different from your own, may impact the value of your investment.

The cross listing of our ordinary shares and our ADSs may adversely affect the liquidity and value of our ADSs.

The cross listing of our ordinary shares and our ADSs may dilute the liquidity of these securities in one or both markets and may adversely affect the development of an active trading market for our ADSs in the United States. The price of our ADSs could also be adversely affected by trading in our ordinary shares on the TPEx. In addition, currency fluctuations as between the New Taiwan dollar and U.S. dollar may have an adverse impact on the value of our ADSs.

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We have incurred and will incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company in the United States, and our senior management will be required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives and corporate governance practices.

Our ADSs began trading on The Nasdaq Global Market on May 4, 2018 under the trading symbol “ASLN”. As a U.S. public company, we have incurred significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur previously, and we will incur additional expenses after we no longer qualify as an “emerging growth company,” or EGC. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the listing requirements of The Nasdaq Stock Market LLC, or Nasdaq, and other applicable securities rules and regulations impose various requirements on non-U.S. reporting public companies, including the establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and corporate governance practices. Our senior management and other personnel will need to devote a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. Moreover, these rules and regulations will increase our legal and financial compliance costs and will make some activities more time-consuming and costly. For example, we expect that these rules and regulations may make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, which in turn could make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified senior management personnel or members for our board of directors.

However, these rules and regulations are often subject to varying interpretations, in many cases due to their lack of specificity, and, as a result, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance is provided by regulatory and governing bodies. This could result in continuing uncertainty regarding compliance matters and higher costs necessitated by ongoing revisions to disclosure and governance practices.

Pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404, we will be required to furnish a report by our senior management on our internal control over financial reporting and an attestation report on internal control over financial reporting issued by our independent registered public accounting firm. However, while we remain an EGC we will not be required to include an attestation report on internal control over financial reporting issued by our independent registered public accounting firm. To achieve compliance with Section 404 within the prescribed period, we will be engaged in a process to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. In this regard, we will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, potentially engage outside consultants, adopt a detailed work plan to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue steps to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented, and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. Despite our efforts, there is a risk that we will not be able to conclude, within the prescribed timeframe or at all, that our internal control over financial reporting is effective as required by Section 404. If we identify one or more material weaknesses, it could result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited, because we are incorporated under Cayman Islands law, we conduct substantially all of our operations and all of our directors and executive officers reside outside of the United States.

We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our Sixth Amended and Restated Memorandum and Articles of Association, or our Articles, the Companies Law (2018 Revision) of the Cayman Islands and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against the directors, actions by minority shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by

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the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England and Wales, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. Similarly, the rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands has a less developed body of securities laws than the United States, and some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, Cayman Islands companies do not have standing to sue before the federal court of the United States.

Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like us have no general rights under Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records or to obtain copies of lists of shareholders of these companies. Although our shareholders are permitted by our Articles to request access to our books and records, our directors have discretion under our Articles to determine whether or not, and under what conditions, our corporate records may be inspected by our shareholders, but are not obliged to make them available to our shareholders. This may make it more difficult for you to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest.

Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, differ significantly from requirements for companies incorporated in other jurisdictions such as the United States. To the extent we choose to follow home country practice with respect to corporate governance matters, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would under rules and regulations applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.

As a result of all of the above, our public shareholders may have more difficulty in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by management, members of the board of directors or controlling shareholders than they would as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States. For a discussion of significant differences between the provisions of the Companies Law of the Cayman Islands and the laws applicable to companies incorporated in the United States and their shareholders, see “Item 10. Additional Information—B. Memorandum and articles of association—Material Differences in Corporate Law”

Future sales, or the possibility of future sales, of a substantial number of our ADSs or ordinary shares could adversely affect the price of our ADSs.

Future sales of a substantial number of our ADSs or ordinary shares, or the perception that such sales will occur, could cause a decline in the market price of our ADSs. If any of our large shareholders or members of our management team sell substantial amounts of our securities in the public markets, or the market perceives that such sales may occur, the market price of our ADSs and our ability to raise capital through an issue of equity securities in the future could be adversely affected.

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We may sell additional equity or debt securities or enter into other financing arrangements to fund our operations, which may result in dilution to our shareholders and holders of our ADSs and impose restrictions on our business.

In order to raise additional funds to support our operations, we may sell additional equity or debt securities, which could adversely impact our existing shareholders and new investors, as well as our business. The sale of additional equity or debt securities, or a combination of both, would result in the issuance of additional shares capital and dilution to our shareholders and holders of our ADSs.

The incurrence of indebtedness would result in increased fixed payment obligations and could also result in certain restrictive covenants, such as limitations on our ability to incur additional debt, limitations on our ability to acquire, sell or license intellectual property rights and other operating restrictions that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. In the event that we enter into collaborations or licensing arrangements to raise capital, we may be required to accept unfavorable terms, including relinquishing or licensing to a third party on unfavorable terms our rights to technologies or product candidates that we otherwise would seek to develop or commercialize ourselves or potentially reserve for future potential arrangements when we might be able to achieve more favorable terms.

Because we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our ADSs or ordinary shares in the foreseeable future, capital appreciation, if any, will be your sole source of potential gains and you may never receive a return on your investment.

We have not paid cash dividends in the past on our ordinary shares. We intend to retain earnings, if any, for use in our business and do not anticipate paying any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, on our ADSs or ordinary shares will be your sole source of potential gains for the foreseeable future, and you will suffer a loss on your investment if you are unable to sell your ADSs or the underlying ordinary shares at or above the price you pay for our ADSs or ordinary shares. Investors seeking cash dividends should not purchase our ADSs.

Holders of our ADSs may not have the same voting rights as the holders of our ordinary shares and may not receive voting materials in time to be able to exercise their right to vote.

As a holder of our ADSs, you will only be able to exercise the voting rights with respect to the underlying ordinary shares in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you must vote by giving voting instructions to the depositary. Upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will try to vote the underlying ordinary shares in accordance with these instructions. You will not be able to directly exercise your right to vote with respect to the underlying shares unless you withdraw the shares. When a general meeting is convened, you may not receive sufficient advance notice to withdraw the shares underlying your ADSs to allow you to vote with respect to any specific matter. After we notify the depositary of the agenda for the shareholders’ meeting, the depositary will notify you of the upcoming vote and will arrange to deliver our voting materials to you once they are available. We have agreed to give the depositary at least 30 days’ prior notice of shareholder meetings. Nevertheless, we cannot assure you that you will receive the voting materials in time to ensure that you can instruct the depositary to vote your shares. In addition, the depositary and its agents are not responsible for failing to carry out voting instructions or for their manner of carrying out your voting instructions. This means that you may not be able to exercise your right to vote and you may have no legal remedy if the shares underlying your ADSs are not voted as you requested.

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Except in limited circumstances, the depositary for our ADSs will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our ordinary shares underlying your ADSs if you do not vote at shareholders’ meetings, which could adversely affect your interests.

Under the deposit agreement for our ADSs, to the extent we have provided the depositary with at least 45 days’ notice of a proposed meeting, if voting instructions are not timely received by the depositary from you, you shall be deemed to have instructed the depositary to give a discretionary proxy to a person designated by us to vote the shares represented by your ADSs as desired. However, no such instruction shall be deemed given and no discretionary proxy shall be given (a) if we inform the depositary in writing that (i) we do not wish such proxy to be given, (ii) substantial opposition exists with respect to any agenda item for which the proxy would be given or (iii) the agenda item in question, if approved, would materially or adversely affect the rights of holders of shares and (b) unless we have provided the depositary with an opinion of our counsel to the effect that (a) the granting of such discretionary proxy does not subject the depositary to any reporting obligations in the Cayman Islands or the ROC, or by the ROC FSC, or TPEx, (b) the granting of such proxy will not result in a violation of the laws, rules, regulations or permits of the Cayman Islands, the ROC, the ROC FSC or TPEx, (c) the voting arrangement and deemed instruction will be given effect under the laws, rules, regulations and permits of the Cayman Islands, the ROC, the ROC FSC and TPEx and (d) the granting of such proxy will not under any circumstances result in the depositary being treated as the beneficial owner of ADSs under the laws, rules, regulations or permits of the Cayman Islands, the ROC, the ROC FSC and TPEx.

The effect of this discretionary proxy is that, if you fail to give voting instructions to the depositary as to how to vote the ordinary shares underlying your ADSs at any particular shareholders’ meeting, you cannot prevent our ordinary shares underlying your ADSs from being voted at that meeting, absent the situations described above, and it may make it more difficult for shareholders to influence our management. Holders of our ordinary shares are not subject to this discretionary proxy.

You may not be able to withdraw the underlying ordinary shares of our ADSs.

Pursuant to ROC law, an ADS holder who is a non-ROC person wishing to withdraw and hold deposited ordinary shares from the ADS facility is required to appoint an eligible agent in the ROC for filing tax returns and making tax payments, or a Tax Guarantor. Such Tax Guarantor will be required to meet the qualifications set by the Ministry of Finance of the ROC and will act as the guarantor of the withdrawing ADS holder’s tax payment obligations. In addition, subject to certain limited exceptions, under current ROC law, repatriation of profits by a non-ROC withdrawing ADS holder is subject to the submission of evidence by the withdrawing ADS holder of the appointment of a Tax Guarantor to, and approval thereof by, the ROC tax authority and of tax clearance certificates or evidentiary documents issued by the Tax Guarantor. We cannot provide any assurances that a withdrawing ADS holder will be able to appoint and obtain approval from the tax authority in a timely manner or at all.

Pursuant to ROC law, an ADS holder who is not an ROC person or ROC entity wishing to present ADSs to the depositary for cancellation and withdrawal and holding of the Deposited Securities from the depositary receipt facility is required to register as a foreign investor with the Taiwan Stock Exchange, or TWSE, if the ADS holder has never been registered as foreign investor with the TWSE previously, for making investments in the ROC securities market prior to withdrawing and holding the underlying ordinary shares from the depositary receipts facility.

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Additionally, pursuant to ROC law, such withdrawing ADS holder is required to appoint a local agent in the ROC to, on such ADS holder’s behalf, open a securities trading account with prior approval granted by the TWSE with a local securities brokerage firm (with qualification set by the FSC) and a bank account, pay ROC taxes, remit funds, exercise shareholder rights and perform such other functions as the ADS holder may designate upon such withdrawal. In addition, such withdrawing ADS holder is also required to appoint a custodian bank and open a custodian account to hold the securities and cash in safekeeping, make confirmations, settle trades and report all relevant information. Without making such appointment and the opening of such custodian account, the withdrawing ADS holder would be unable to hold or subsequently sell the deposited ordinary shares withdrawn from the ADR facility on the TPEx. The laws of the ROC applicable to the withdrawal of the underlying ordinary shares may change from time to time. We cannot provide any assurances that current law will remain in effect or that future changes of ROC law will not adversely affect the ability of ADS holders to withdraw deposited ordinary shares.

Holders of our ADSs may not receive distributions on our ordinary shares in the form of ADSs or any value for them if it is illegal or impractical to make them available to holders of ADSs.

The depositary for our ADSs has agreed to pay to holder of our ADSs the cash dividends or other distributions it or the custodian receives on our ordinary shares or other deposited securities after deducting its fees and expenses and certain taxes. Holders of our ADSs will receive these distributions in proportion to the number of our ordinary shares their ADSs represent. However, in accordance with the limitations set forth in the deposit agreement, it may be unlawful or impractical to make a distribution available to holders of ADSs. We have no obligation to take any other action to permit the distribution of our ADSs, ordinary shares, rights or anything else to holders of our ADSs. This means that holders of our ADSs may not receive the distributions we make on our ordinary shares or any value from them if it is unlawful or impractical to make them available to ADS holders. These restrictions may have a negative impact on the market value of our ADSs.

Holders of our ADSs may be subject to limitations on transfer of their ADSs.

ADSs are transferable on the books of the depositary. However, the depositary may close its transfer books at any time or from time to time when it deems expedient in connection with the performance of its duties. In addition, the depositary may refuse to deliver, transfer or register transfers of ADSs generally when our books or the books of the depositary are closed, or at any time if we or the depositary deems it advisable to do so because of any requirement of law or of any government or governmental body, or under any provision of the deposit agreement, or for any other reason in accordance with the terms of the deposit agreement. The rights of our shareholders may differ from the rights typically offered to shareholders of a U.S. corporation.

Our corporate affairs are governed by our Articles and by the laws governing Cayman Islands corporations and companies engaging in drug development, marketing and sales businesses, as well as by the common law of the Cayman Islands. Certain rights and responsibilities of our shareholders, ADS holders and members of our board of directors under Cayman law are different from those that apply to a Delaware corporation. For example, Directors of Cayman Islands exempted companies are required to observe certain fiduciary duties. These duties are owed to the Cayman Islands company and include the duty to act in the best interests of the company and the shareholders as a whole. However, the fiduciary duties of a director of a Cayman Islands exempted company may not be the same as the fiduciary duty of a director of a U.S. corporation. In addition, controlling shareholders of U.S. corporations owe fiduciary duties to minority shareholders, while shareholders (including controlling shareholders) of Cayman Islands companies owe no fiduciary duties to either to the company or to other shareholders. Further, the

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rights of our shareholders to bring shareholders’ suits against us or our board of directors under Cayman Islands law are much more limited than those of shareholders of a U.S. corporation. For example, under Cayman Islands law, a shareholder who wishes to bring a claim against a director would generally need to obtain permission from the courts to bring a derivative action, in the name of the company, against the director. This is because the director of a Cayman Islands exempted company owes duties to the company and not to individual shareholders. As a result, our shareholders may have more difficulty protecting their rights in connection with actions taken by our directors than they would as shareholders of a U.S. corporation. In addition, minority shareholders in a Cayman Islands exempted company have more limited rights than minority shareholders in a U.S. corporation in relation to mergers and similar transactions that the company may carry out. For example, if a merger under the Companies Law involving a Cayman Islands exempted company is approved by the requisite majority of shareholders, a dissenting minority shareholder would have the right to be paid the fair value of their shares (which, if not agreed between the parties, will be determined by the Cayman Islands court) if they follow the required procedures, subject to certain exceptions. Such dissenter rights differ substantially from the appraisal rights, which would ordinarily be available to dissenting shareholders of Delaware corporations. Further, if a takeover offer is made to the shareholders of a Cayman Islands exempted company and accepted by holders of 90% of the shares affected, the offeror may require the holders of the remaining shares to transfer such shares on the terms of the offer. An objection can be made to the Grand Court of the Cayman Islands but this is unlikely to succeed in the case of an offer which has been so approved unless there is evidence of fraud, bad faith or collusion. A minority shareholder in this scenario would have no rights comparable to the appraisal rights which would generally be available to a dissenting shareholder of a U.S. corporation in similar circumstances. See the section of this Annual Report titled “Item 10. Additional Information—B. Memorandum and articles of association—Material Differences in Corporate Law” for a description of the principal differences between the provisions of Cayman law applicable to us and the U.S. Delaware General Corporate Law relating to shareholders’ rights and protections.

We qualify as a foreign private issuer and, as a result, we are not subject to U.S. proxy rules and are subject to Exchange Act reporting obligations that permit less detailed and less frequent reporting than that of a U.S. domestic public company.

We report under the Exchange Act as a non-U.S. company with foreign private issuer status. Because we qualify as a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the Exchange Act that are applicable to U.S. domestic public companies, including (i) the sections of the Exchange Act regulating the solicitation of proxies, consents or authorizations in respect of a security registered under the Exchange Act; (ii) the sections of the Exchange Act requiring insiders to file public reports of their stock ownership and trading activities and liability for insiders who profit from trades made in a short period of time; and (iii) the rules under the Exchange Act requiring the filing with the SEC of quarterly reports on

Form 10-Q containing unaudited financial and other specified information, or current reports on Form 8-K upon the occurrence of specified significant events. In addition, our officers, directors and principal shareholders are exempt from the reporting and “short-swing” profit recovery provisions of Section 16 of the Exchange Act and the rules thereunder. Therefore, our shareholders may not know on a timely basis when our officers, directors and principal shareholders purchase or sell our ordinary shares or ADSs. In addition, foreign private issuers are not required to file their annual report on Form 20-F until the date that is four months after the end of each fiscal year, while U.S. domestic issuers that are accelerated filers are required to file their annual report on Form 10-K within 75 days after the end of each fiscal year. Foreign private issuers also are exempt from Regulation Fair Disclosure, aimed at preventing issuers from making selective disclosures of material information. As a result of the above, you may not have the same protections afforded to shareholders of companies that are not foreign private issuers.

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As a foreign private issuer, we are permitted to adopt certain home country practices in relation to corporate governance matters that differ significantly from Nasdaq corporate governance listing standards. These practices may afford less protection to shareholders than they would enjoy if we complied fully with corporate governance listing standards.

As a foreign private issuer, we are permitted to take advantage of certain provisions in the Nasdaq listing rules that allow us to follow ROC law for certain governance matters. Certain corporate governance practices in the ROC may differ significantly from corporate governance listing standards. When our ADSs are listed on The Nasdaq Global Market, we intend to continue to follow ROC corporate governance practices in lieu of certain corporate governance requirements of Nasdaq. See “Management—Foreign Private Issuer Exemption.” Therefore, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would have under corporate governance listing standards applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.

We may lose our foreign private issuer status in the future, which could result in significant additional costs and expenses.

As discussed above, we are a foreign private issuer, and therefore, we are not required to comply with all of the periodic disclosure and current reporting requirements of the Exchange Act. The determination of foreign private issuer status is made annually on the last business day of an issuer’s most recently completed second fiscal quarter. We would lose our foreign private issuer status if, for example, more than 50% of our ordinary shares are directly or indirectly held by residents of the United States and we fail to meet additional requirements necessary to maintain our foreign private issuer status. If we lose our foreign private issuer status on this date, we will be required to file with the SEC periodic reports and registration statements on U.S. domestic issuer forms, which are more detailed and extensive than the forms available to a foreign private issuer. We will also have to mandatorily comply with U.S. federal proxy requirements, and our officers, directors and principal shareholders will become subject to the short-swing profit disclosure and recovery provisions of Section 16 of the Exchange Act. In addition, we will lose our ability to rely upon exemptions from certain corporate governance requirements under the Nasdaq listing rules. As a U.S. listed public company that is not a foreign private issuer, we will incur significant additional legal, accounting and other expenses that we will not incur as a foreign private issuer, and accounting, reporting and other expenses in order to maintain a listing on a U.S. securities exchange. These rules and regulations could also make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified members of our board of directors and more expensive to procure director and officer liability insurance.

We are an EGC and we cannot be certain if the reduced reporting requirements applicable to “emerging growth companies” will make our ADSs less attractive to investors.

We are an EGC as defined in the JOBS Act. For as long as we continue to be an EGC, we may take advantage of exemptions from various reporting requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not EGCs, including not being required to comply with the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404, exemptions from the requirements of holding a nonbinding advisory vote on executive compensation and shareholder approval of any golden parachute payments not previously approved. We may take advantage of these exemptions until we are no longer an EGC. We could be an EGC until December 31, 2023, although circumstances could cause us to lose that status earlier, including if the aggregate market value of our ADSs and ordinary shares held by non-affiliates exceeds $700 million as of the end of our second fiscal quarter before that time, in which case we would no longer be an EGC as of the following December 31st (the last day of our fiscal year). We cannot predict if investors will find our ADSs less attractive because we may rely on these exemptions. If some investors find our ADSs less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our ADSs and the price of our ADSs may be more volatile.

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If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal controls over financial reporting, we may not be able to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud. As a result, shareholders could lose confidence in our financial and other public reporting, which would harm our business and the trading price of our ADSs.

Effective internal controls over financial reporting are necessary for us to provide reliable financial reports and, together with adequate disclosure controls and procedures, are designed to prevent fraud. Any failure to implement required new or improved controls, or difficulties encountered in their implementation could cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations. In addition, any testing by us conducted in connection with Section 404, or any subsequent testing by our independent registered public accounting firm, may reveal deficiencies in our internal controls over financial reporting that are deemed to be material weaknesses or that may require prospective or retroactive changes to our financial statements or identify other areas for further attention or improvement. Inadequate internal controls could also cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information, which could have a negative effect on the trading price of our ADSs.

Management will be required to assess the effectiveness of our internal controls annually, starting with our Annual Report on Form 20-F for the year ended December 31, 2019. However, for as long as we are an EGC under the JOBS Act, our independent registered public accounting firm will not be required to attest to the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404. An independent assessment of the effectiveness of our internal controls could detect problems that our management’s assessment might not. Undetected material weaknesses in our internal controls could lead to financial statement restatements requiring us to incur the expense of remediation and could also result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research, or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research, about our business, the price of our ADSs and our trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our ADSs depends in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If no or too few securities or industry analysts provide coverage or if one or more of the analysts who cover us downgrade our ADSs or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the price of our ADSs would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of us or fail to publish reports on us regularly, demand for our ADSs could decrease, which might cause the price of our ADSs and trading volume to decline.

Our U.S. ADS Holders may suffer adverse tax consequences if we are characterized as a passive foreign investment company.

Generally, if for any taxable year (i) 75% or more of our gross income is passive income, or (ii) at least 50% of the average quarterly value of our assets are held for the production of, or produce, passive income, we would be characterized as a passive foreign investment company, or PFIC, for U.S. federal income tax purposes. For purposes of the above calculations, a non-U.S. corporation that directly or indirectly owns at least 25% by value of the shares of another corporation is treated as if it held its proportionate share of the assets of the other corporation and received directly its proportionate share of the income of the other corporation. Passive income generally includes dividends, interest, rents, royalties and capital gains. Based on estimates of our gross income and gross assets (including tangible assets and intangible assets based on the anticipated market value of our ordinary shares), and the nature of our business, we expect to be classified as a PFIC for the taxable year ending December 31, 2018 and for future taxable years. There can be no assurance, however, regarding our PFIC status for any taxable year.

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If we are characterized as a PFIC, our U.S. shareholders may suffer adverse tax consequences, including having gains realized on the sale of our ordinary shares treated as ordinary income, rather than as capital gain, the loss of the preferential rate applicable to dividends received on our ordinary shares by individuals who are U.S. Holders (as defined in “Material Income Tax Considerations—Material U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations for U.S. Holders”), and having interest charges apply to distributions by us and the proceeds of share sales and having to comply with certain reporting requirements. Certain elections exist that may alleviate some of the adverse consequences of PFIC status and would result in an alternative treatment (such as mark-to-market treatment) of our ordinary shares; however, we do not intend to provide the information necessary for U.S. holders to make qualified electing fund elections if we are classified as a PFIC.

Item 4. Information on the Company

ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Pte. Ltd. was incorporated in Singapore in April 2010 and ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Limited was incorporated in Cayman Islands in June 2014 as the listing vehicle for our initial public offering and listing on the TPEx. Our subsidiaries, ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Taiwan Limited, ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Australia Pty Ltd., ASLAN Pharmaceuticals Hong Kong Limited, ASLAN Pharmaceuticals (Shanghai) Co. Ltd. and ASLAN Pharmaceuticals (USA) Inc., were incorporated in the Republic of China, Australia, Hong Kong, China and the United States in November 2013, July 2014, July 2015, May 2016 and October 2018, respectively.

Our principal executive offices are located at 83 Clemenceau Avenue, #12-03 UE Square, Singapore 239920. Our telephone number at that address is +65 6222 4235. Our registered office in the Cayman Islands is at the offices of Intertrust Corporate Services (Cayman) Limited at 190 Elgin Avenue, George Town, Grand Cayman KY1-9005, Cayman Islands.  Our agent for service of process in the United States is Cogency Global Inc. 10 East 40th Street 10th Floor, New York, New York 10016, +1 212 947 7200. The SEC maintains an internet site that contains reports, proxy and information statements, and other information regarding issuers that file electronically with the SEC at http://www.sec.gov. We also maintain a corporate website at www.aslanpharma.com. Information contained in, or that can be accessed through, our website is not a part of, and shall not be incorporated by reference into, this document. We have included our website address in this document solely as an inactive textual reference.

Since our inception in 2010, we have devoted substantially all of our resources to acquiring rights to, and developing our product candidates, including preclinical studies and clinical trials and providing general and administrative support for our operations. We have not generated any revenue from product sales and we do not currently have any products approved for commercialization. We have financed our operations through a combination of debt and equity financings and government grants.

Our actual capital expenditures for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018 amounted to $374,425, $291,432 and $80,262 respectively. These capital expenditures primarily consisted of our continued investment in construction of additional facilities to support the development of our products and technologies. We expect our capital expenditures to increase in absolute terms in the near term as we continue to advance our research and development programs and grow our operations. We anticipate our capital expenditures in 2019 to be financed from the proceeds from our existing cash and cash equivalents, including the net proceeds from our initial public offering of American Depositary Shares on the Nasdaq Global Market.

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We are a clinical-stage oncology and inflammatory disease focused biopharmaceutical company based in Singapore developing novel therapeutics for global markets. We target diseases that are both highly prevalent in Asia and orphan indications in the United States and Europe. Our Asia development platform is designed to enable us to accelerate the development of drugs to treat these diseases. Our portfolio is comprised of four product candidates which target: validated growth pathways applied to new patient segments; novel immune checkpoints; and novel cancer metabolic pathways.

Our lead program, varlitinib, is a reversible small molecule pan-HER inhibitor that targets the human epidermal growth factor receptors HER1, HER2 and HER4. Varlitinib is currently being studied in a global pivotal clinical trial for biliary tract cancer for which we expect to report topline data in the second half of 2019.

We focus on cancers, such as biliary tract cancer, that are orphan diseases in the United States and Europe for which there are few, if any, approved therapies. Although registration trials for orphan diseases may require fewer patients, recruitment for such trials in the United States and Europe is often challenging given the limited availability of suitable patients. Asia offers a unique opportunity to accelerate the development of novel therapies in diseases where either the cancers are more prevalent or the availability of suitable patients is greater.

Our Product Candidates

The following table summarizes our product candidate pipeline:

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We hold global rights to all of our product candidates with the exception of varlitinib and ASLAN003, for both of which BioGenetics Co., Ltd., or BioGenetics, acquired certain rights for South Korea.

Our lead program, varlitinib, is a highly potent, oral, reversible small molecule pan-HER inhibitor. Targeting individual members of the human epidermal growth factor receptor, or HER, family is a well-validated approach to cancer treatment. In some cancers, HER1-selective or HER2-selective agents, such as Herceptin, appear to be effective for a large number of patients. However, in other cancers such as gastric cancer, only a small number of patients have tumors driven by a single receptor, such as HER2. We believe there are larger subsets of patients with cancers driven by a combination of HER1, HER2, HER3 and HER4. We have demonstrated that varlitinib has activity in biliary tract cancer, where HER family expression is known to be high, as well as in HER2-positive breast cancer and in subsets of colorectal cancer. Following discussions with the United States Food and Drug Administration, or U.S. FDA, and other regulators, we have initiated a global pivotal clinical trial of varlitinib for biliary tract cancer. We believe varlitinib has the potential to be the first targeted therapy approved for biliary tract cancer.

In addition to varlitinib, we have several other product candidates in development. We are developing ASLAN003, an inhibitor of human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, or DHODH, in AML and are exploring development in other solid tumors where this mechanism has been shown to be relevant. ASLAN003 has the potential to induce differentiation in blast cells and our observed signs of clinical activity and tolerance leads us to believe that ASLAN003 could be applicable in a broad range of AML patients.

ASLAN004 is an IL-4/IL-13 receptor antibody, which we believe has the potential to be a best-in-class therapy for moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis and asthma, due to greater selectivity in binding target cells via the IL-13 receptor. We have initiated a Phase 1 clinical trial investigating ASLAN004 as a therapeutic antibody for atopic dermatitis. The single ascending dose study is expected to be completed in the first half of 2019.

ASLAN005 is an antibody in preclinical development targeting recepteur d’origine nantais, or RON, an immune checkpoint inhibitor.

Our Product Candidates

Varlitinib (ASLAN001)

Varlitinib is a highly potent, oral, reversible, small molecule inhibitor of the human epidermal growth factor receptor, or HER, family of receptor tyrosine kinases, or RTKs. Approved drugs that selectively target HER1 (also known as EGFR) or HER2 have been effective in some patients. However, patients may relapse on or may not respond to these therapies because the growth of their cancers is driven by other HER family receptors.

Varlitinib targets multiple members of the HER family of receptors and therefore we believe it may be effective in a broader range of tumor types and effective in patients that have progressed on prior HER1-selective or HER2-selective therapies. Following guidance from the U.S. FDA, we initiated a randomized global pivotal clinical trial testing varlitinib in second-line biliary tract cancer. We expect to report topline data for this trial in the second half of 2019.

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We licensed varlitinib from Array BioPharma Inc., or Array, in 2011 after successful completion of five Phase 1 clinical trials in a range of solid tumors, which showed activity in breast cancer. To date, we have completed four additional Phase 1b clinical trials and two Phase 2 clinical trials for this product candidate. Over 600 patients have been dosed with varlitinib as monotherapy or in combination with other agents. In these clinical trials, varlitinib was well-tolerated in Caucasian and Asian patients. Varlitinib has demonstrated activity in a range of tumor types including biliary tract, gastric, breast and colorectal cancer. In January 2018, we entered into a new license agreement with Array, which replaces and supersedes our previous collaboration and license agreement, pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to develop, manufacture and commercialize varlitinib for all human and animal therapeutic, diagnostic and prophylactic uses.

We have obtained orphan drug designation from the U.S. FDA for varlitinib in gastric cancer and cholangiocarcinoma, which represents approximately 60% of biliary tract cancer cases. The IND for varlitinib in biliary tract cancer was originally submitted by Array in 2005 and subsequently inactivated in February 2012.

The IND for varlitinib in biliary tract cancer was then reactivated on April 21, 2017. We also have obtained orphan drug designation from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety in South Korea for varlitinib in biliary tract cancer.

Mechanism of Action

Varlitinib targets the HER family of receptors, comprised of four members, HER1, HER2, HER3 and HER4, which is responsible for driving growth in human epithelial cells. These receptors can be mutated or overexpressed in many tumors, which can cause excessive proliferative activity and uncontrolled growth. For instance, HER2 is often overexpressed or amplified in breast cancer. Many of these tumors are dependent on continued HER2 activity for growth and are therefore sensitive to HER2 targeted agents such as Herceptin (trastuzumab). We believe that a pan-HER inhibitor such as varlitinib, which targets HER1, HER2 and HER4, could inhibit proliferation and control tumor growth. HER3 requires active HER1, HER2 or HER4 to function and therefore varlitinib indirectly inhibits HER3.

Varlitinib has been designed to have favorable properties with low nanomolar, or nM, potency for the HER family. Varlitinib selectively inhibits the HER family and therefore has the potential for fewer off-target effects. It was well-tolerated in the clinic, with reduced gastrointestinal, or GI, toxicity compared to other pan-HER inhibitors.

Varlitinib Mechanism of Action

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As a reversible pan-HER inhibitor, varlitinib binds temporarily to the HER family of receptors when the drug concentration is high, but dissociates when the drug concentration falls. Irreversible pan-HER inhibitors bind permanently to the receptor so when they are absorbed in the GI tract, the receptors in the gut epithelium are irreversibly inhibited and prevented from proliferating, which may lead to high rates of diarrhea in patients. In contrast, the gut epithelium of patients taking a reversible inhibitor like varlitinib can proliferate when the local concentration in the gut falls between dosing, which should result in lower frequency and severity of diarrhea. Importantly, we believe the concentration of varlitinib in the tumor remains stable between dosing leading to sustained target inhibition predicted to be in excess of 90%.

Advantages

We believe that varlitinib has the potential to be the first targeted therapy approved for biliary tract cancer. We believe varlitinib has the following potential competitive advantages:

Biliary Tract Cancer

Market Opportunity

Annually, there are approximately 200,000 new cases of biliary tract cancer in Asia, of which up to 145,000 are in China, and approximately 12,600 new cases in the United States. Biliary tract cancer has a five-year survival rate of less than 10% and there has been little improvement in prognosis or treatment outcomes over the last two decades.

Biliary tract cancer consists of intra-hepatic and extra-hepatic cholangiocarcinoma (cancer of the bile duct), cancer of the gall bladder and papilla of Vater (the final portion of the bile duct emptying into the small bowel). Though biliary tract cancer is considered to be a subset of liver cancer, therapies approved for liver cancer are not approved for biliary tract cancer. There are no therapies approved for biliary tract cancer in the United States.

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Approximately 35% of patients undergo surgical resection, but recurrence is common, with the disease returning in 50% to 60% of patients. Late-stage patients typically receive chemotherapy. In the first-line setting, the doublet combination of gemcitabine and cisplatin is commonly used and has demonstrated a response rate of 26% and overall survival of 11.7 months.

Specific pathways driving biliary tract cancer have not been identified, however recent data from Japan and China show that approximately 70% of biliary tract cancer tumors exhibit HER family overexpression, with HER4 expressed most widely.

Preclinical and Clinical Development

In a pooled analysis of biliary tract cancer patients from three Phase 1 clinical trials of varlitinib in combination with platinum-based regimens assessing efficacy and safety, 43 patients who have had up to four prior treatments have been enrolled as of the data cut-off date of November 26, 2018. Of the 27 patients evaluable for efficacy, 9 patients achieved a partial response (33%) and 13 patients had stable disease, corresponding to an ORR of 33% and disease control rate of 81%.

Maximum change in tumor size in biliary tract cancer patients from three Phase 1 clinical trials: Varlitinib in combination with platinum-based regimens

Ongoing Clinical Trials

First-Line Biliary Tract Cancer

We have initiated a Phase 1b clinical trial to test the safety, tolerability and efficacy of varlitinib in first-line biliary tract cancer in combination with gemcitabine/cisplatin. In the Phase 1b clinical trial, increasing doses of varlitinib are combined with gemcitabine/cisplatin to determine the maximum tolerated dose, or MTD, in first-line biliary tract cancer. When the MTD is declared, the clinical trial is expected to progress to Phase 2.

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In the ongoing Phase 1b clinical trial, 21 biliary tract cancer patients who had not received prior systemic therapy had been enrolled as of the data cut-off date of November 26, 2018. Of the 16 patients evaluable for efficacy (11 in the 200mg cohort and five in the 300mg cohort), seven patients achieved a partial response and eight had stable disease greater or equal to 12 weeks, corresponding to an ORR of 44% and DCR of 94%. In the higher 300mg dose cohort, three of five patients achieved a partial response and two had stable disease greater or equal to 12 weeks, corresponding to a higher ORR of 60% and DCR of 100%. These preliminary results demonstrate increased activity of varlitinib in combination with gemcitabine/cisplatin compared to the commonly used doublet chemotherapy combination of gemcitabine/cisplatin alone, where ORR and DCR are 26% and 81%, respectively.

Maximum change in tumor size in first-line biliary tract cancer patients from Phase 1b clinical trials: Varlitinib in combination with gemcitabine/cisplatin

TREETOPP Trial in Second-Line Biliary Tract Cancer

Based on the results in biliary tract cancer from the Phase 1b clinical trials, we met with the U.S. FDA in October 2016 regarding the design of a registration trial and the overall development pathway for varlitinib in this indication. If this registration trial demonstrates a significant effect on overall response rate, varlitinib could be granted accelerated approval subject to a second confirmatory trial being run after approval to demonstrate an improvement in overall survival. TREETOPP is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial in second-line biliary tract cancer comparing varlitinib and capecitabine to placebo and capecitabine. This clinical trial is being led by Dr. Milind Javle at the MD Anderson Cancer Center.  The co-primary endpoints are ORR and PFS and will be assessed by ICR according to RECIST. The secondary endpoints are OS, DOR, DCR and tumor size percentage change at week 12, as defined by RECIST. In order to maintain an overall one-sided 10% type I error rate for the trial, we plan to use a Hochberg procedure, meaning that the trial would be deemed to have met its primary objective if either endpoint is significant at the one-sided 5% level or if both endpoints are significant at the one-sided 10% significance level. We completed recruitment of 127 patients in December 2018 and expect to report topline data from this trial in the second half of 2019. If the endpoints are met, we intend to submit a New Drug Application, or NDA, to the U.S. FDA for accelerated approval in second-line biliary tract cancer.

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Pivotal Biliary Tract Cancer Trial Design (ongoing)

Metastatic Breast Cancer

The prevalence of breast cancer in Asia was approximately 2.3 million patients in 2012, while the prevalence in the United States was approximately 1.0 million, of which approximately 5% was metastatic in both cases.

Metastatic breast cancer has a five-year survival rate of 26%. Approximately 20% of these patients have tumors with HER2 amplification and will typically receive the anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody therapies Herceptin and pertuzumab in first-line treatment and then ado-trastuzumab emtansine in second-line treatment. In third-line treatment, patients receive the HER1/HER2 small molecule inhibitor lapatinib plus capecitabine. Varlitinib has demonstrated an improved objective response rate and with lower levels of diarrhea compared to lapatinib in a Phase 2 clinical trial.

We have completed a randomized open label Phase 2 clinical trial in HER2 amplified patients who have progressed on Herceptin. The open label clinical trial enrolled 50 patients with two arms comparing varlitinib and capecitabine to lapatinib and capecitabine, with a primary endpoint of tumor shrinkage at week 12, as assessed by ICR according to RECIST. Six patients withdrew consent within the first 30 days following enrollment, of which only one patient experienced a grade 4 serious adverse event, which was diarrhea and assessed as being drug-related. One patient died due to liver failure leading to multi-organ failure and sepsis after 11 days on treatment with varlitinib and capecitabine and was reported as “possibly related” to varlitinib because the immediate cause of the patient’s death could not be determined, and therefore, a relationship to varlitinib could not be excluded. These patients were excluded from the subsequent efficacy analysis. For the patients who remained in the clinical trial, the average tumor shrinkage in the varlitinib arm was 36% compared to 18% in the lapatinib arm, with p=0.075, which met the preset statistical criterion for significance for this clinical trial. (For reference, the U.S. FDA would typically require p≤0.05 to demonstrate statistical significance in a pivotal clinical trial.) The ORR was 60% for patients in the varlitinib arm compared to 46% for those in the lapatinib arm. Varlitinib and capecitabine was well-tolerated with 12.5% grades 3/4 diarrhea that was controlled on standard doses of loperamide. The incidence of diarrhea observed in the varlitinib and capecitabine arm also compared favorably to an observed incidence of 40% grades 3/4 diarrhea in published data for neratinib, an irreversible pan-HER inhibitor. In addition, the 60% ORR seen with varlitinib and capecitabine is comparable to the 64% ORR seen in neratinib studies. We also have ongoing investigator-led clinical trials in neoadjuvant breast cancer and breast cancer with brain metastasis.

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Phase 2 Metastatic Breast Cancer Trial Design (completed)

Safety

Varlitinib has been dosed as monotherapy and in combination with singlet and doublet chemotherapies commonly used in biliary tract, gastric, metastatic breast and colorectal cancer. The maximum tolerated doses varied from 300mg twice daily to 500mg twice daily (BID).

Varlitinib Maximum Tolerated Dose in Phase 1/1b Clinical Trials

Across all varlitinib clinical trials, the most commonly occurring drug-related adverse events, or AEs, as of December 31, 2018 were nausea (36% of patients with any grade, 1% with grade 3 or 4), diarrhea (32% of patients with any grade, 3% with grade 3 or 4) and fatigue (32% of patients with any grade, 4% with grade 3 or 4). Grade refers to the severity of the AE, with grade 3 indicating a severe or medically significant but not immediately life-threatening AE and grade 4 indicating an AE with potentially life-threatening consequences.

ASLAN003

ASLAN003 is an orally active, potent inhibitor of DHODH that has the potential to be first-in-class in AML. AML is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells, characterized primarily by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells that build up in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells. We are conducting a Phase 2 clinical trial to develop ASLAN003 in AML. We reported interim data from the first 14 patients in December 2018 and we expect to report data from the dose optimization portion in the first half of 2019. Our plan is to meet with regulatory authorities to discuss expedited regulatory strategies, such as accelerated approval. We are also exploring other solid and liquid

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tumor types where DHODH may be relevant, such as myelodysplastic syndrome, TNBC and HCC. We licensed ASLAN003 from Almirall in 2012 after Almirall’s completion of a Phase 1 single ascending dose clinical trial, in which the drug was well-tolerated in healthy volunteers. We then conducted two additional Phase 1 clinical trials, exploring multiple ascending doses and fed/fasted comparison in healthy volunteers. These trials demonstrated that the drug was well-tolerated and plasma concentrations following dosing were similar in Caucasians and Asians. In August 2018, we obtained orphan drug designation from the U.S. FDA for ASLAN003 in AML.

Mechanism of Action

In cancer, increased levels of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, and pyrimidines are required for tumor growth and survival. ASLAN003 is an inhibitor of DHODH, which is the enzyme controlling the rate limiting step in the de novo synthesis of pyrimidines. Pyrimidines are nucleotides and are essential building blocks for the production of DNA and RNA in mammalian cells. DHODH is located in the mitochondria and during manufacture of nucleotides it also contributes to the production of ATP. Inhibition of DHODH depletes the intracellular pool of pyrimidines and contributes to lower levels of ATP. This leads to the induction of the tumor suppressor p53, which at high levels of induction triggers apoptosis, or programmed cell death.

In AML, blast cells are unable to differentiate and form granulocytes, such as neutrophils and eosinophils, causing depletion of white blood cells. All-trans retinoic acid, or ATRA, which is approved to treat certain types of AML representing up to 15% of all AML patients, is able to differentiate these AML blast cells. Over 90% of patients with these types of AML experience a complete response and have a five-year survival of 75% when treated with ATRA. In other subsets of AML, DHODH inhibitors have been shown to promote differentiation of these blast cells in vitro, allowing them to turn into granulocytes, which potentially may reverse the condition.

Teriflunomide and leflunomide, which is a prodrug of teriflunomide, are first generation DHODH inhibitors, approved in the United States, Europe and Asia for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis, respectively. These molecules are less potent inhibitors of DHODH as compared to ASLAN003 and are sufficient to slow the proliferation of inflammatory cells and therefore adequate in chronic inflammatory disorders. However, these molecules have limited use in oncology because the inhibition of tumor growth requires more potent and sustained inhibition of DHODH. Previous efforts to develop high potency DHODH inhibitors for oncology indications were unsuccessful. Candidate drugs had unacceptable levels of toxicity due to off-target binding and would accumulate in the body, requiring up to two years to clear below pharmacologically active levels after dosing was stopped. As a result, development of these inhibitors did not progress. In contrast, ASLAN003 is not chemically related to first generation DHODH inhibitors. ASLAN003 is up to two orders of magnitude more potent at inhibiting DHODH than leflunomide and teriflunomide, and has a half-life of 18 hours, which should allow once daily dosing. We assessed the potency of ASLAN003 using three standard assays: cell free, human primary cell and human whole blood. The table below shows that ASLAN003 is more potent than teriflunomide. The IC50 value is the concentration of the drug required to produce 50% inhibition of response in the assay.

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ASLAN003 Cellular and Biochemical Potency

Advantages

We believe that ASLAN003 has the potential to be a first-in-class DHODH inhibitor in oncology due to the following competitive advantages:

Market Opportunity

AML patients that have failed on standard of care chemotherapy in AML or do not respond to chemotherapy are termed relapsed/refractory, and represent the majority of the total AML population. In 2016, the annual incidence of relapsed/refractory patients is approximately 13,000 patients in the United States, 8,000 in Europe, 5,000 in Japan and 24,000 in China. Survival is age-dependent and survival rates are extremely poor for the elderly. The five-year relative survival rate for AML patients aged 19 years and below is 65%, but declines to 50% for patients aged 20 to 49 years, and the survival rate for patients aged 65 years or older is only 6%.

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The first-line treatment for patients with AML is a combination of aggressive chemotherapies. However, elderly patients with AML typically are ineligible for aggressive treatment regiments due to the significant toxicity associated with these therapies. The survival of these patients is usually less than one year. Over the past two decades, many compounds have been evaluated in AML patients, however, only three targeted drugs have been approved. Furthermore, these drugs target relatively small subsets of patients, leaving a significant unmet need.

Preclinical and Clinical Development

Our Phase 1 single and multiple ascending dose clinical trials of ASLAN003, which were conducted with 95 healthy subjects, demonstrated dose proportional pharmacokinetics and no accumulation in the body. The exposure profile of the drug was highly similar in Asian and Caucasian subjects, and demonstrated stable drug levels in plasma at multiple doses.

After a single 100mg oral dose of ASLAN003, the plasma levels of the drug in Caucasians and Asians were highly similar. ASLAN003 also reached steady state after the second day of dosing and did not accumulate in the body.

ASLAN003 Pharmacokinetic Profile

We predict the exposure of ASLAN003 to result in approximately 90% inhibition of DHODH, with 400mg taken once daily, in comparison to the maximum dose of teriflunomide, which leads to only 30% inhibition, as shown in the graph below:

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DHODH Binding with ASLAN003 Compared to Teriflunomide

ASLAN003 in AML

In AML, cancerous blast cells fail to differentiate into mature blood cells and do not follow normal processes controlling cell death due to genetic mutations. As a result, the number of blast cells increases to very high levels, crowding out normal red and white blood cell production in the bone marrow, which can eventually result in patient death. Normal differentiated blast cells express specific cell surface markers, such as CD11b, and contain granules, which are active compartments inside the cell that store molecules for killing invading pathogens.

ASLAN003 has demonstrated the ability to cause differentiation of AML blast cells leading to mature cells that correctly express CD11b and contain active granules.

Data published in 2016 identified inhibition of DHODH as a key mechanism that can trigger differentiation of blast cells in AML. Inhibition of DHODH and the resultant depletion of the pyrimidine pool in AML resulted in extensive differentiation in in vitro and in vivo mouse bone marrow transplant models. In preclinical studies, we have demonstrated that ASLAN003 can differentiate AML blast cells in vitro and in vivo in a variety of AML cell lines and primary AML cells.

Differentiation of AML Cell Lines with ASLAN003

The human AML blast cell line, THP-1, demonstrated differentiation when exposed to low doses of ASLAN003 characterized by expression of cell surface markers of normal immune cells, such as CD11b, condensation of the nuclei and formation of active granules that are indicative of normal human white blood cells. Low concentrations of ASLAN003, approximately equivalent to a 50mg once daily dose in patients, led to over 95% upregulation of CD11b which is indicative of differentiation of AML blast cells to granulocytes.

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ASLAN003 exposure also resulted in blast cells developing condensed, lobed nuclei, characteristic of normal human granulocytes, and in the appearance of active granules in the cytoplasm, as demonstrated by the reduction of Nitro Blue Tetrazolium, or NBT, a standard assay for granulocytes, as shown below:

In addition to THP-1, the differentiation effect of ASLAN003 has also been demonstrated in other AML cell lines, namely KG-1 and MOLM-14 with similar nanomolar potency.

ASLAN003 in vitro differentiation activity

We have also demonstrated that ASLAN003 reduces leukemic burden and prolongs survival in vivo in mice bearing AML cell lines THP-1 and MOLM-14. ASLAN003 also reduced leukemic burden in an AML PDX model.

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Survival advantage of ASLAN003 in vivo

Reduction of leukemic burden in AML PDX model by ASLAN003

AML Phase 2 Clinical Trial

We have initiated a Phase 2 clinical trial with ASLAN003 in patients with advanced relapsed/refractory AML in Australia and Singapore. We intend to initially recruit 24 patients in the first part of this trial and test at least four doses of ASLAN003 (100mg QD, 200mg QD, 100mg BID and 200mg BID) in the AML population as monotherapy for 28 days or until progression with a primary endpoint of the rates of complete remission, or CR, and complete remission with incomplete bone marrow recovery, or CRi, followed by an expansion cohort of an additional 20 patients to study the optimum dose selected by the steering committee. In addition, we are planning an additional clinical trial recruiting up to 10 patients to explore the efficacy of ASLAN003 in combination with azacitidine.

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Phase 2 AML Trial Design (ongoing)

As of November 16 2018, 14 patients with AML ineligible for standard treatment, including relapsed, refractory and treatment naïve patients, had been enrolled in the multicenter dose optimization study to evaluate ASLAN003 monotherapy administered as a 28-day cycle. Eight patients had received at least one post-treatment assessment at the cut-off date and were evaluable for efficacy. Of the eight evaluable patients, four patients showed clinical signs of efficacy: two patients exhibited evidence of myeloid differentiation; and, one patient in the 100mg BID cohort developed suspected differentiation syndrome. Overall, four patients had stable disease for more than three months. One AML patient that entered suspected differentiation syndrome demonstrated a reduction in peripheral blood blast cells from 66% to 6% with a concomitant increase in neutrophils. Despite this significant reduction in blood blast cells, we were unable to confirm whether this patient had a complete remission (which would require bone marrow blast cells to be 5% or less) because the patient had bone marrow fibrosis and it was therefore not possible to take a viable bone marrow biopsy.

Efficacy summary of ongoing ASLAN003 AML Phase 2 clinical trial

As of March 2019, we have completed recruitment for the 100mg BID cohort (cohort 3) and continue to see further evidence of activity. Dosing for the 200mg BID cohort (cohort 4) has started and is expected to complete in the first half of 2019. In addition, we intend to open a cohort to explore the safety, tolerability and efficacy of ASLAN003 in combination with azacitidine. In December 2018, we submitted an IND to the U.S. FDA for ASLAN003 to allow the current Phase 2 clinical trial to open additional centers in the United States.

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Potential Development Opportunity for ASLAN003 in Solid Tumors

Recent publications have demonstrated that phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) (Mathur et. al., Cancer Discovery 2017) and KRAS (Koundinya et. al., Cell Chemical Biology 2018) mutant cancers are both highly sensitive to DHODH inhibition. Additional evidence suggests that DHODH inhibitors may have synergistic efficacy in TNBC in combination with commonly used chemotherapies (Brown et. al., Cancer Discovery 2017).  We have reproduced this data, and our data in PTEN mutant TNBC PDX models with ASLAN003 confirms inhibition of DHODH leads to efficacy comparable to chemotherapy (doxorubicin). Finally, an upcoming publication demonstrates that tumorigenesis is dependent on de novo synthesis of pyrimidines via DHODH and that DHODH activity is conserved in multiple cancer types, therefore inhibition of DHODH can be efficacious in a wide variety of cancers (Bajzikova et. al., Cell Metabolism 2019).

Safety

ASLAN003 has been well-tolerated in AML patients treated to date with only two patients out of 14 experiencing a grade 3/4 adverse event. The most commonly occurring adverse events in AML were leukocytosis, nausea and rash, with grade 3/4 leukocytosis in one patient.

ASLAN004

ASLAN004 is a fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-13 receptor α1 subunit, or IL-13Rα1. ASLAN004 is currently in preclinical development, and we are not aware of any other antibodies in clinical development targeting IL-13Rα1. By targeting IL-13Rα1, ASLAN004 potently inhibits signaling of both interleukin 4, or IL-4, and interleukin 13, or IL-13. IL-4 and IL-13 are central to triggering symptoms of allergy in atopic dermatitis, such as redness and itching of the skin, as well as asthma symptoms such as shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing. Dupilumab is marketed for both moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis and moderate-to-severe asthma. As we target the same pathways as

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dupilumab, we believe ASLAN004 can follow a similar regulatory path. We believe ASLAN004 has the potential to become a first-in-class IL-13Rα1 inhibitor. By targeting IL-13Rα1, a receptor with a narrower cellular distribution than the IL-4 receptor, we believe ASLAN004 has the potential to offer a lower dosing frequency, which are important features for subcutaneous injections, providing greater patient convenience. In addition, ASLAN004 has more selective binding than dupilumab, which we believe could give ASLAN004 a more favorable side effect profile than dupilumab. We are conducting a Phase 1 clinical trial for ASLAN004 in atopic dermatitis. The single ascending dose portion of the study recruited healthy volunteers and the multiple ascending dose component will recruit moderate to severe atopic dermatitis patients. The single ascending dose study is expected to complete in the first half of 2019. In the future, we may also develop ASLAN004 in other inflammatory indications, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, or COPD. We licensed worldwide rights for ASLAN004 from CSL Limited, or CSL, in May 2014.

Mechanism of Action

ASLAN004 is a fully human monoclonal antibody with high affinity binding that inhibits both IL-4 and IL-13 signaling by binding to IL-13Rα1. The cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 are the main drivers of allergic inflammation and have mutually redundant functions. They selectively bind and stimulate the type 2 receptor, which is a complex composed of IL4Rα and IL-13Rα1. Stimulation of the common receptor for IL-4 or IL-13 triggers a signaling cascade that can result in severe atopic dermatitis or asthma. The pivotal role for this pathway in these disease indications has been exemplified by the monoclonal antibody dupilumab which binds to IL-4Rα to block signaling by IL-4 and IL-13. We are not aware of any other monoclonal antibody in development that can inhibit both IL-4 and IL-13 signaling. IL-13Rα1 has a narrower cellular distribution than IL-4Rα. We believe this can offer potential benefits that include a lower dosing frequency than dupilumab, which requires subcutaneous injections every two weeks with a 2 milliliter injection volume. These potential benefits of ASLAN004 would represent meaningful advantages for patient treatment. An additional benefit of ASLAN004 is its lack of binding to the type 1 receptor, which is expressed on a broader range of hematological cell types. We believe that by avoiding inhibition of the type 1 receptor, ASLAN004 may have fewer side effects than dupilumab, which does bind the type 1 receptor.

The figure below demonstrates the binding of ASLAN004 and dupilumab to the type 2 receptor:

IL-4 / IL-13 Receptor Antibody Mechanism of Action

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Advantages

We believe that ASLAN004 has the potential to be a best-in-class therapy:

Market Opportunity

Market Opportunity in Severe Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis is the most common dermatological disease, affecting over 200 million patients worldwide, characterized by red inflamed skin and severe daytime and nighttime itching, which can severely impact patients’ quality of life. Up to one-third of adult atopic dermatitis patients are considered moderate-to-severe, for which currently available therapeutics are limited and management is challenging in the majority of cases.

Treatment options have focused on topical therapies. In December 2016, the U.S. FDA granted approval for Eucrisa (developed by Pfizer Inc.), a topical treatment for mild to moderate atopic dermatitis. More recently in March 2017, the U.S. FDA granted approval for dupilumab (developed by Sanofi S.A. and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc.) for adults with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis.

Market Opportunity in Asthma

Asthma affects approximately 300 million patients worldwide. Chronic inflammation of the airway, combined with bronchial hyper-reactivity causes shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing, potentially leading to exacerbations that may result in hospitalization or death. Over 4.5 million severe asthmatics have symptoms which cannot be controlled with conventional therapies, such as bronchodilators or inhaled corticosteroids.

Xolair (anti-IgE) and Nucala (anti-IL5) are the two leading biological therapies by sales. Novel therapies like dupilumab are anticipated to compete with biological therapies and inhaled therapies.

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Preclinical and Clinical Development

ASLAN004 is a fully human IgG4 monoclonal antibody that specifically binds to the human IL-13Ra1 protein and was originally made using the Medarex mouse technology. The antibody was isolated and optimized to have picomolar binding affinity by CSL Behring, a member of the CSL group of companies.

ASLAN004 is a potent inhibitor of both IL-4 and IL-13 signaling with a binding affinity in the picomolar range for human IL-13Ra1. In in vitro assays, ASLAN004 inhibits the release of mediators that trigger allergic reactions with an IC50 in the low nM range.

We have constructed manufacturing cell lines that deliver a yield of over two grams per liter of therapeutic antibody. ASLAN004 has been successfully manufactured at the 500-liter production scale in accordance with current good manufacturing practices, or cGMP. ASLAN004 has been tested in four-week good laboratory practices, or GLP, compliant toxicology studies in primates.

We initiated a Phase 1 dose escalation clinical trial for ASLAN004 and enrolled the first subject in October 2018. The single ascending dose (SAD) portion of the study will recruit healthy volunteers, and is followed by a multiple ascending dose (MAD) study conducted in moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis patients. In the first part of the SAD study, we demonstrated that ASLAN004 was well-tolerated at all doses when administered to healthy volunteers intravenously. There were no adverse events that led to discontinuations. Analysis of downstream mediators including phosphorylation of STAT6 (pSTAT6), a critical mediator of allergic inflammation, demonstrated complete inhibition within one hour of dosing, which was then maintained for more than 29 days, suggesting monthly dosing may be achievable. In the second part of the ongoing SAD study, we are testing a subcutaneous formulation. We dosed the last patient in March 2019 and the SAD study is expected to complete in the first half of 2019. The MAD study will provide early efficacy data in severe atopic dermatitis, allowing dose selection and an early comparison to currently available standards of care.

Preclinical Pipeline

We have been building an immuno-oncology portfolio to provide a pipeline of innovative drug candidates that could be used as monotherapy or in combination with other drug candidates in our portfolio.

Competition

Our industry is intensely competitive and subject to rapid and significant technological change. While we believe that our knowledge, experience and scientific resources provide us with competitive advantages, we face substantial competition from major pharmaceutical companies, specialty pharmaceutical companies and biotechnology companies worldwide. Many of our competitors have significantly greater financial, technical and human resources. Small and early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. As a result, our competitors may discover, develop, license or commercialize products before or more successfully than we do.

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We face competition with respect to our current product candidates, and will face competition with respect to future product candidates, from segments of the pharmaceutical, biotechnology and other related sectors, as well as from academic institutions.

The acquisition or licensing of pharmaceutical products is also very competitive. If we seek to acquire or license products, we will face substantial competition from a number of more established companies, some of which have acknowledged strategies to license or acquire products and many of which are bigger than us and have more institutional experience and greater cash flows than we have. These more established companies may have competitive advantages over us, as may other emerging companies taking similar or different approaches to product licenses or acquisitions. In addition, a number of established research-based pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies may acquire products in late stages of development to augment their internal product lines, which may provide those companies with an even greater competitive advantage.

If our product candidates are approved, they may compete with currently marketed drugs and therapies used for treatment of the same indications, and potentially with drug candidates currently in development. The key competitive factors affecting the success of any approved product include its efficacy, safety profile, price, method of administration and level of promotional activity.

Varlitinib

ASLAN003

ASLAN004

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Manufacturing

We do not have internal manufacturing capabilities for small molecules or biological drugs and we do not intend to build or acquire infrastructure for manufacturing our drugs for clinical or commercial supply. All of our clinical supplies are manufactured in accordance with cGMP using high quality contract manufacturing organizations based in the United States, Europe and Asia.

We are currently developing a validated commercial process for the manufacture of varlitinib. We have contracted with three cGMP compliant third-party manufacturers in the United Kingdom and China to manufacture the active pharmaceutical ingredient and final tablet. The first batches of varlitinib drug substance manufactured using the validated commercial process are expected to be available in mid-2019.

We have worked with one contract manufacturing organization to manufacture ASLAN004 at a 500 liter scale and are currently in the process of selecting a long term late-stage clinical commercial manufacturer for this drug.

Varlitinib

Varlitinib drug substance is manufactured in accordance with cGMP by Sterling Pharma Solutions Limited in the United Kingdom. We have manufactured at the 200kg scale and are currently in process validation at the 350kg scale. Varlitinib drug product (tablet) is manufactured in accordance with cGMP by PCI Pharma Services in the United Kingdom. Both drug substance and drug product can be scaled to over four tons per year. A second site manufacture for varlitinib in accordance with cGMP has been established at WuXi Apptec Co., Ltd., or WuXi, in China for both drug substance and drug product. Currently, WuXi has successfully manufactured at the 30kg scale.

ASLAN003

ASLAN003 drug substance has been manufactured by Sigma-Aldrich Company LTD in Switzerland at the 30kg scale in accordance with cGMP. ASLAN003 drug product in the form of capsules has been manufactured by WuXi in China in accordance with cGMP. We expect to develop an ASLAN003 tablet in 2019 and plan to conduct further scale up and process optimization of both drug substance and drug product.

ASLAN004

Manufacturing cell lines for ASLAN004 have been created by Selexis SA. Process development for ASLAN004 drug substance has been successful and was developed by JHL Biotech, Inc. Manufacture at 500 liter scale for both non-GMP (for toxicology) and cGMP compliant (for clinical trials) has been completed.

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License and Collaboration Agreements

Collaboration and License Agreements with BioGenetics

License of varlitinib for South Korea

On February 27, 2019, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement with BioGenetics pursuant to which we granted BioGenetics the exclusive right to commercialize, and if agreed, manufacture, varlitinib for the treatment of all indications in South Korea. In consideration of the rights granted to BioGenetics under the agreement, we received an upfront payment of $2 million from BioGenetics and are eligible to receive up to $11 million in sales and development milestones (the threshold for the sales milestones being subsequently amended by the ASLAN003 license summarized below). We are also eligible to receive tiered double-digit royalties on net sales up to a percentage within the mid-twenties.  BioGenetics will be responsible for obtaining initial and all subsequent regulatory approvals of varlitinib in South Korea. We may provide clinical drug supplies to BioGenetics required for regulatory filings and for commercialization of products, pursuant to a separate manufacturing and supply agreement which the parties shall use commercially reasonable efforts to enter into no later than June 30, 2020.

During the license period and for one year thereafter, neither BioGenetics, nor any of its affiliates, will participate in or fund, directly or indirectly, the development, manufacture or commercialization of a product which competes with varlitinib. The license period commences on the effective date of the agreement and, unless terminated earlier pursuant to the terms of the agreement, or is mutually agreed to be extended, expires on the tenth anniversary of first commercial sale, subject to a right of automatic renewal for a further year upon ether party’s notice. Either party may terminate the agreement in the event of material breach by, or insolvency of, the other party, or in the event of a material safety risk associated with the product. On any termination of the agreement, the license granted to BioGenetics will terminate, subject to certain transitional provisions.

License of ASLAN003 for South Korea

On March 11, 2019, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement with BioGenetics, pursuant to which we granted BioGenetics the exclusive right to commercialize, and if agreed, manufacture, ASLAN003 for the treatment of all indications in South Korea. In consideration of the rights granted to BioGenetics under the agreement, we received an upfront payment of $1 million from BioGenetics and are eligible to receive up to $8 million in sales and development milestones, the thresholds for payment of such sales milestones being the aggregate of sales of varlitinib under the license summarized above and sales of ASLAN003 products. We are also eligible to receive tiered double-digit royalties on net sales up to a percentage within the mid-twenties. BioGenetics agreed to contribute to the global research and development costs incurred by ASLAN in the clinical development of ASLAN003 in acute myeloid leukemia. BioGenetics will be responsible for obtaining initial and all subsequent regulatory approvals of ASLAN003 in South Korea. We may provide clinical drug supplies to BioGenetics required for regulatory filings and for commercialization of products, pursuant to a separate manufacturing and supply agreement which the parties shall use commercially reasonable efforts to enter into no later than June 30, 2020.

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During the license period and for one year thereafter, neither BioGenetics, nor any of its affiliates, will participate in or fund, directly or indirectly, the development, manufacture or commercialization of a product which competes with ASLAN003. The license period commences on the effective date of the agreement and, unless terminated earlier pursuant to the terms of the agreement, or is mutually agreed to be extended, expires on the tenth anniversary of first commercial sale, subject to a right of automatic renewal for a further year upon ether party’s notice. Either party may terminate the agreement in the event of material breach by, or insolvency of, the other party, or in the event of a material safety risk associated with the product. On any termination of the agreement, the license granted to BioGenetics will terminate, subject to certain transitional provisions.

License Agreement with Array

On January 3, 2018, we entered into a new license agreement with Array pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to develop, manufacture and commercialize varlitinib for all human and animal therapeutic, diagnostic and prophylactic uses. This new license agreement replaces and supersedes our previous collaboration and license agreement with Array dated July 12, 2011.

Under the new license agreement, we agreed to use commercially reasonable efforts to obtain approval by the U.S. FDA or the applicable health regulatory authority and commercialize varlitinib.

In consideration of the rights granted to us under the agreement, we made an initial upfront payment to Array of $12 million and an additional upfront payment of $11 million in July 2018. In addition, we will be required to pay up to $30 million if certain development milestones are achieved, $20 million if certain regulatory milestones are achieved, and up to $55 million if certain commercial milestones are achieved. We are also required to pay Array tiered royalties in the low tens on net sales of varlitinib. Our royalty obligations will continue on a country-by-country basis through the later of the expiration of the last valid patent claim for varlitinib or ten years after the first commercial sale of varlitinib in a given country.

If within two years of the date of the new license agreement we sublicense varlitinib and are paid an upfront payment, Array will further be entitled to receive one-half of the portion of any such upfront payment that exceeds a specified amount. In the event that the base royalty under a sublicense agreement is 20% or less, we will only be required to share with Array one-half of the amount actually received by us under such sublicense agreement in lieu of the tiered royalties described above, provided that the royalty paid in such case shall in no event be less than a royalty in the high single digit range. If we undergo a change in control during a defined period following execution of the new license agreement, Array will also be entitled to receive a low to mid single-digit percentage of the proceeds resulting from the change in control. Unless earlier terminated, the agreement will continue on a country-by-country basis until the expiration of the respective royalty obligations in such country. Upon such expiration in such country, Array will grant to us a perpetual, royalty-free, non-terminable, non-revocable, non-exclusive license to exploit certain know-how in connection with the development, manufacturing and/or commercialization of varlitinib for all human and animal therapeutic, diagnostic and prophylactic uses in such country. Either party may terminate the agreement (i) in the event of the other party’s material breach of the agreement that remains uncured for a specified period of time or (ii) the insolvency of the other party. We may also terminate the agreement without cause at any time upon 180 days advance notice to Array.

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Development and License Agreement with Almirall

On May 16, 2012, we entered into a development and license agreement with Almirall, pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to certain patents, know-how and other intellectual property controlled by Almirall to a DHODH inhibitor, LAS186323, which we refer to as ASLAN003. The licensed field covered by this agreement was limited to the treatment or prevention of rheumatoid arthritis, excluding any topical formulation.

On December 21, 2015, we entered into an amended development and license agreement with Almirall which replaced the previous agreement, further amended by an amendment agreement entered into on March 16, 2018. Under the agreement as so amended, we obtained from Almirall an expanded exclusive, worldwide license to develop, manufacture and commercialize ASLAN003 products for all human diseases with primary focus on oncology diseases, excluding topically-administered products embodying the compound for keratinocyte hyperproliferative disorders, and the non-melanoma skin cancers basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinomas and Gorlin Syndrome, or collectively, the KHD/NMSC products. We generally have the right to sublicense our rights under the agreement. If Almirall wishes to use a third party to develop KHD/NMSC products, we have a right of first negotiation to obtain a license from Almirall to carry out those developments.

Under the amended agreement, we are generally obligated to use commercially reasonable efforts to develop ASLAN003 products in accordance with the development plan, and to commercialize ASLAN003 products, either by ourselves or through sublicensees. We agreed not to develop or commercialize any competing product that has the same mechanism of action as ASLAN003 while the intellectual property licensed from Almirall remains in force or for ten years after the launch of ASLAN003 products on a country-by-country basis, whichever is longer. In addition, we granted to Almirall the right to use certain developed know-how for Almirall’s internal and commercial programs for KHD/NMSC products, and Almirall granted us the right to use certain know-how developed by or on behalf of Almirall in the course of its programs for KHD/NMSC products in the field licensed to ASLAN.

In consideration of the rights granted to us under the amended agreement, we will be required to pay an aggregate of up to $30 million if certain development milestones are achieved and an aggregate of up to $50 million if certain regulatory milestones are achieved, in each case across different indications. If we commercialize any ASLAN003 products, we will be required to pay Almirall tiered royalties in the mid single-digit range on net sales of ASLAN003 products, subject to adjustments in certain circumstances. In the event we sublicense any of our rights under the agreement relating to the ASLAN003 technology, we will be obligated to pay Almirall 10% of sublicensee income we may receive under such sublicenses.

Unless earlier terminated, the amended agreement continues indefinitely. Either party may terminate the agreement (i) in the event of the other party’s material breach of the agreement that remains uncured for a specified period of time, (ii) if significant safety issues arise which make development or commercialization of the product unlawful or in violation of standard industry practices, (iii) if the other party becomes insolvent or (iv) if the continuation of the agreement is no longer commercially viable, as proven by us based on supporting objective data reasonably acceptable to Almirall and us. Almirall may terminate the agreement (i) if we fail to provide evidence of having used commercially reasonable efforts to pursue development or commercialization, (ii) if we challenge or assist third parties in challenging any intellectual property rights licensed from Almirall under the amended agreement, (iii) if there is a general withdrawal or recall of ASLAN003 products from any country, on a product-by-product and/or country-by-country basis or (iv) upon a change of control of ASLAN if such change of control could reasonably be expected to lead to an impairment to Almirall, subject to certain conditions. Under the agreement, an impairment in connection with a change of control will only be deemed to occur if Almirall

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can demonstrate that (i) a competitor of Almirall will control us, (ii) the commercial value of ASLAN003 products may be damaged, (iii) the commercial value of Almirall’s KHD/NMSC products may be adversely affected, (iv) Almirall’s reputation or the reputation of any of Almirall’s products or compounds in the marketplace may be damaged and/or (v) the party that will control us lacks the resources to maximize commercial sales of ASLAN003 products.

License Agreement with CSL

On May 12, 2014, we entered into a license agreement with CSL, pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to certain patents, know-how and other intellectual property owned or controlled by CSL related to CSL’s anti-IL13 receptor monoclonal antibody, CSL334, which we refer to as ASLAN004, and antigen binding fragments thereof. Under the agreement, we have the exclusive right to develop ASLAN004 products through clinical proof of concept for the treatment, diagnosis or prevention of diseases or conditions in humans. Although we do not have the right to commercialize ASLAN004 products ourselves, we have the right to grant the commercial rights to third parties after we achieve clinical proof of concept subject to certain conditions.

On September 18, 2018, we amended the license agreement with CSL, primarily to change the focus of the development program from asthma to atopic dermatitis.  

We are obligated to develop ASLAN004 products through clinical proof of concept at our own expense, and we are required to achieve certain development milestones by specified dates.

In consideration of the rights granted to us under the agreement, we are required to pay to CSL a share in the range of 40 to 50 percent of all licensing revenue we receive. We are also responsible for all payments to third-party licensors to CSL, to the extent such obligations relate to our exploitation of the rights licensed under CSL’s agreement with those parties.

The agreement continues until 12 months after the final development milestone date. However, if we have entered into a sublicense granting the right to commercialize ASLAN004 products to a third party before such date, then the agreement will be extended until the expiration or termination of such third-party sublicense.

Either party may terminate the agreement (i) in the event of the other party’s material breach of the agreement that remains uncured for a specified period of time, (ii) under certain circumstances related to the safety of ASLAN004 or (iii) if the other party becomes insolvent. In addition, we may terminate the agreement under certain circumstances related to the development and commercialization of ASLAN004.

In the event that we enter into an agreement with a third party for the commercialization of ASLAN004 products, and such agreement subsequently expires by its terms, the license of CSL patents and know-how granted under the license agreement will become fully paid-up and perpetual as they relate to the agreement with the third party. If the agreement is terminated or expires and CSL subsequently commercializes ASLAN004 products or grants a third party rights to commercialize ASLAN004 products, then CSL will pay us royalties on the net sales of ASLAN004 products or share license revenue with us (whichever is applicable).

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Intellectual Property

Patents

Our commercial success depends in part on our ability to identify, obtain and seek protection for our products, drug candidates and our core technologies employing a combination of patent rights, trade secrets, confidentiality agreements and contractual obligations and to operate without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating on the proprietary rights of third parties. It is also important we prevent others from infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating our proprietary or intellectual property rights.

Our intellectual property strategy is, where appropriate, to file new patent applications on inventions, including improvements to existing products/candidates and processes to improve our competitive edge or to improve business opportunities. We continually assess and refine our intellectual property strategy to endeavor to ensure it is fit for purpose.

Our strategy requires us to license assets from third parties with suitable protection and to identify and seek patent protection for our inventions, when possible. This process is expensive and time consuming and we may not be able to file and prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost, in a timely manner or in all jurisdictions where protection may be commercially advantageous, or we may financially not be able to protect our proprietary rights at all. Despite our efforts to protect our proprietary rights, unauthorized parties may be able to obtain and use information we regard as proprietary. Generally, many therapeutic indications currently being pursued have a focus in Asia markets. Where possible, we seek to file in at least major commercial jurisdictions relevant to the product or technology, however, this is assessed on a case by case basis.

Licensing assets from third parties involves technical and scientific due diligence to assess the opportunity, the strength of the intellectual property protection for the asset and the ability to commercialize the asset. This due diligence is usually conducted over a relatively short period of time. It can be difficult to identify all the issues relevant to the assessment. Failure to identify all the relevant issues can impact negatively on the value of the asset.

The issuance of a patent does not ensure that it is valid or enforceable. Therefore, even if we are issued a patent, it may not be valid or enforceable against third parties. Issued patents may be challenged, narrowed, invalidated or circumvented. In addition, court decisions may introduce uncertainty in the enforceability or scope of patents owned by pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. Thus, any of our patents, including patents that we may rely on to protect our market for approved drugs, may be held invalid or unenforceable by a court of final jurisdiction.

Because patent applications in the United States, Europe and many other jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after filing, and because publications of discoveries in scientific literature lag behind actual discoveries, we cannot be certain that we were the first to make the inventions claimed in our issued patents or pending patent applications, or that we were the first to file for protection of the inventions set forth in our patents or patent applications. As a result, we may not be able to obtain or maintain protection for certain inventions. Therefore, the enforceability and scope of our patents in the United States, Europe and in many other jurisdictions cannot be predicted with certainty and, as a result, any patents that we own or license may not provide sufficient protection against competitors. We may not be able to obtain or maintain patent protection from our pending patent applications, from those we may file in the future, or from those we may license from third parties. Moreover, even if we are able to obtain patent protection, such patent protection may be of insufficient scope to achieve our business objectives.

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In addition, the issuance of a patent does not give us the right to practice the patented invention. Third parties may have blocking patents that prevent marketing of our products or working our own technology. We endeavor to identify early third party patents and patent applications which may be blocking to a product or technology, to minimize this risk. However, relevant documents may be overlooked or missed, which may in turn impact of the freedom to commercialize the relevant asset.

The term of a patent depends upon the laws of the country in which it is issued. In most jurisdictions, including the United States, Europe, China and Japan, the basic patent term is 20 years from the earliest filing date of a non-provisional patent application. In the United States, Europe and Japan, patents relating to inventions are effective for 20 years, subject to the payment of renewal fees. Some jurisdictions, such as the United States, Europe and Japan provide for up to an additional five years patent term extension for therapeutics products that require marketing approval. The requirements for this supplementary protection are set by the relevant authorities in the given jurisdiction. Products approved before the expiry of the basic patent term may benefit from such a patent term extension. It is our strategy to apply for such supplementary protection, where possible.

In addition to patent protection, statutory provisions in the United States, Europe and other countries may provide a period of clinical data exclusivity which may be followed by an additional period of market exclusivity to compensate for the time required for regulatory approval of our drug products. Once the relevant criteria are satisfied, the protection applies automatically. The length of protection depends on the jurisdiction and may also depend on the type of therapy.

Third parties may seek to market “similar” versions of our approved products. Alternatively, third parties may seek approval to market their own products, similar or otherwise, competitive with our products. We may not be able to block the commercialization of these products, which may erode our commercial position in the market place.

If disputes over intellectual property and other rights that we have licensed or co-own prevent or impair our ability to maintain our current licensing or exclusivity arrangements on acceptable terms, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates. In addition, under certain of our collaboration agreements, our licensors may retain the right to grant non-exclusive licenses to the licensed patents and technology to other academic or research institutions for non-commercial research purposes.

Certain provisions in the agreements under which we currently license intellectual property or technology to and from third parties may be susceptible to multiple interpretations. The resolution of any contract interpretation disagreement that may arise could narrow what we believe to be the scope of our rights to the relevant intellectual property or technology, increase what we believe to be our financial or other obligations under the relevant agreement or decrease the third party’s financial or other obligations under the relevant agreement, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

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Varlitinib

Licensed from Array

On July 12, 2011, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement with Array, relating to Array’s pan-HER inhibitor, ARRY-543, which we refer to as ASLAN001 or varlitinib, pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to develop products incorporating varlitinib as an active ingredient for the treatment or prevention of any diseases or conditions in humans, pursuant to an agreed development plan, and an exclusive, worldwide license to pursue a commercial licensing program in relation to such products. On January 3, 2018, we entered into a new license agreement with Array, which replaces and supersedes our previous collaboration and license agreement, pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to develop, manufacture and commercialize varlitinib for all human and animal therapeutic, diagnostic and prophylactic uses.

The basic protection for varlitinib is provided by a family of composition of matter patents. These patents disclose a genus and also explicitly discloses varlitinib (example number 52 in WO2005/016346).

As of December 31, 2018, this family of patents included patents issued in the United States (at least three patents, some relating to intermediates and processes), Argentina, Australia, Canada, China (at least three patents), Chile, Colombia, Europe, Hong Kong, Indonesia, India, Iceland, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Macau, Mexico, Norway, New Zealand, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Ukraine, South Africa, and Taiwan. In addition, as of December 31, 2018, this family of patents included patent applications filed in Brazil, Egypt and Venezuela. The scope of the claims may differ in the various countries. The normal expiration of this family of patents is November 2024 in the United States and August 2024 outside the United States, subject to the payment of renewal fees.

The first patent application filed in China was not granted based on a technicality of Chinese practice. Subsequently filed divisional patent applications were granted. If the validity of one or more of the granted divisional patents is challenged then one or more of these patents may ultimately be considered invalid. In China typically branded medicines may still grow their market share, even after patent expiration. This trend along with subsequently filed patent applications and the Chinese data exclusivity provisions may minimize the impact of negative decisions that may be received in respect of one or more of the divisional patents.

Protection for the synthetic process of making varlitinib and a key intermediate in that process may be provided from the family of patents derived from WO2007/059257, filed November 15, 2006. As of December 31, 2018, this family of patents includes issued patents in Australia, Canada, China, Colombia, Europe, Hong Kong, Iceland, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Norway, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taiwan, Ukraine and the United States. In addition, as of December 31, 2018, this family of patents included patent applications filed in Brazil and India. The scope of the claims may differ in the various countries. The normal expiration of this family of patents is November 2026.

Owned by Us

We are the applicant on a number of pending patents mostly relating to medical uses or combination therapies. These include the following pending patent applications:

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Normal expiration of these patents, if granted, is 2036, 2037 or 2038 subject to the payment of renewal fees. It is not clear what claims may be granted, if any, when these patents are pursued at the national and regional phase.

There are four unpublished PCT applications and at least five unpublished Singapore priority patent applications relating to use of varlitinib. These patent applications are at an early stage of filing and it is not possible to predict what claims may be ultimately granted, if any from these patent applications.

ASLAN003

Licensed from Almirall

On May 16, 2012, we entered into a development and license agreement with Almirall, pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to certain patents, know-how and other intellectual property controlled by Almirall to a DHODH inhibitor, LAS186323, which we refer to as ASLAN003. On December 21, 2015, we entered into an amended development and license agreement with Almirall which replaced the previous agreement. This was further amended by an amendment agreement entered into on March 16, 2018. Under the amended agreement as so amended, we obtained from Almirall an expanded exclusive, worldwide license to develop, manufacture and commercialize ASLAN003 products for all human diseases with primary focus on oncology diseases, excluding topically-administered products embodying the compound for keratinocyte hyperproliferative disorders, and the non-melanoma skin cancers basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinomas and Gorlin Syndrome.

The basic compound protection for ASLAN003 is provided by the composition of matter family of patents derived from WO2008/077639. As of December 31, 2018, this family of patents included patents issued in Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Hong Kong, Israel, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Peru, Russia, Singapore South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan, and the United States (two patents). In addition, as of December 31, 2018, this family of patents included patent applications filed in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, Ukraine, Uruguay, Venezuela and Vietnam. The scope of the claims may differ in different countries. The normal expiration of this family of patents is December 2027, subject to the payment of renewal fees.

Owned by Us

We are the applicant on a number of pending patents mostly relating to medical uses or combination therapies. These include the following pending patent applications:

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We also have two unpublished Singapore priority patent applications related to specific uses of ASLAN003.

ASLAN004

On May 12, 2014, we entered into a license agreement with CSL, pursuant to which we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to certain patents, know-how and other intellectual property owned or controlled by CSL related to CSL’s anti-IL13 receptor monoclonal antibody, CSL334, which we refer to as ASLAN004, and antigen binding fragments thereof. This was further amended by an amendment agreement entered into on September 18, 2018, primarily to change the focus of the development program from asthma to atopic dermatitis.

The basic compound protection for ASLAN004 is provided by a species (specific sequence) composition of matter family of patents is derived from WO2008/060813, filed October 19, 2007. As of December 31, 2018, this family of patents included patents issued in Australia (two patents), Canada, China, Europe (two patents), Hong Kong (two patents), Japan (two patents), and the United States (four patents). The normal expiration of this family of patents is October 2027, subject to the payment of renewal fees. The situation for patent term extensions for biological molecules, such as antibodies, may be more complicated than for small molecules, because generally the original legislation was written with reference to small molecules. Having said that, the period of data exclusivity available in the United States may be 12 years.

We have two unpublished Singapore priority patent applications filed in the joint names of ASLAN and CSL, one related to a specific therapeutic use for ASLAN004, and the other for a formulation of ASLAN004. These applications are at an early stage of filing and it is not possible to predict what claims may be ultimately granted. We expect that there may opportunities to file further new jointly owned patent applications on aspects of the manufacturing process and ASLAN004 formulation.

Trade Secrets

In addition to patents, we rely upon unpatented trade secrets and know-how and continuing technological innovation to develop and maintain our competitive position. However, trade secrets and know-how can be difficult to protect. We seek to protect our proprietary information, in part, by executing confidentiality agreements with our partners, collaborators, scientific advisors, employees, consultants and other third parties, and invention assignment agreements which are included in the engagement and employment contracts we have with our consultants and employees. The confidentiality agreements we enter into are designed to protect our proprietary information and the agreements or clauses requiring assignment of inventions to us are designed to grant us ownership of technologies that are developed through our relationship with the respective counterparty. We cannot guarantee that we have entered into such agreements with each party that may have or have had access to our trade secrets or proprietary technology and processes or that these agreements will afford us adequate protection of our intellectual property and proprietary information rights. If any of the partners, collaborators, scientific advisors,

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employees and consultants who are parties to these agreements breaches or violates the terms of any of these agreements or otherwise discloses our proprietary information, we may not have adequate remedies for any such breach or violation, and we could lose our trade secrets as a result. If we are unable to maintain the confidentiality of our trade secrets, our business and competitive position may be harmed.

Trademarks and Domain Names

We conduct our business using the trademark “ASLAN,” “ASLAN PHARMACEUTICALS” and our lion logo, as well as domain names incorporating either or both of these trademarks. “ASLAN PHARMACEUTICALS” has been registered in Singapore. In terms of Chinese character versions of our trademarks, in Taiwan, we have a trade mark registration for: “”. In China, we have a trademark registration for “”. We also have a trade mark registration in China to protect the following Chinese character version of the word varlitinib: “威利替尼” (wei li ti ni). We have a portfolio of 20 domain names, which includes: aslanpharma.com, aslanpharma.com.sg, aslanpharma.com.tw, aslanpharma.asia, aslanpharma.org, and aslanpharma.biz.

Government Regulation

The U.S. FDA and comparable regulatory agencies in state and local jurisdictions and in foreign countries impose substantial requirements upon the clinical development, manufacture and marketing of pharmaceutical products. These agencies and other federal, state and local entities regulate research and development activities and the testing, manufacture, quality control, safety, effectiveness, labeling, storage, packaging, recordkeeping, tracking, approval, import, export, distribution, advertising and promotion of our products.

U.S. Government Regulation of Drug Products

In the United States, the U.S. FDA regulates drugs under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FFDCA, and its implementing regulations. The process of obtaining regulatory approvals and the subsequent compliance with applicable federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations requires the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources. Failure to comply with the applicable U.S. requirements at any time during the product development process, approval process or after approval, may subject an applicant to a variety of administrative or judicial sanctions, such as the U.S. FDA’s refusal to approve pending NDAs, withdrawal of an approval, imposition of a clinical hold, issuance of warning letters, product recalls, product seizures, total or partial suspension of production or distribution, injunctions, fines, refusals of government contracts, restitution, disgorgement or civil or criminal penalties.

The process required by the U.S. FDA before product candidates may be marketed in the United States generally involves the following:

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The testing and approval process requires substantial time, effort and financial resources. Preclinical studies include laboratory evaluation of drug substance chemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and drug product formulation, as well as animal studies to assess potential safety and efficacy. Prior to commencing the first clinical trial with a product candidate, we must submit the results of the preclinical tests and preclinical literature, together with manufacturing information, analytical data and any available clinical data or literature, among other things, to the U.S. FDA as part of an IND. Some preclinical studies may continue even after the IND is submitted. The IND automatically becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the U.S. FDA, unless the U.S. FDA, within the 30-day time period, raises safety concerns or questions about the conduct of the clinical trial by imposing a clinical hold. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the U.S. FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical trial can begin. Submission of an IND may not result in U.S. FDA authorization to commence a clinical trial.

Clinical trials involve the administration of the investigational new drug to human subjects under the supervision of qualified investigators in accordance with cGCP requirements. A separate submission to the existing IND must be made for each successive clinical trial conducted during product development, as well as amendments to previously submitted clinical trials. Further, an independent IRB for each study site proposing to conduct the clinical trial must review and approve the plan for any clinical trial, its informed consent form and other communications to study subjects before the clinical trial commences at that site. The IRB must continue to oversee the clinical trial while it is being conducted, including any changes to the study plans.

Regulatory authorities, an IRB or the sponsor may suspend or discontinue a clinical trial at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the subjects are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk, the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with the U.S. FDA’s or the IRB’s requirements, if the drug has been associated with unexpected serious harm to subjects, or based on evolving business objectives or competitive climate. Some studies also include a data safety monitoring board, which receives special access to unblinded data during the clinical trial and may advise us to halt the clinical trial if it determines that there is an unacceptable safety risk for subjects or other grounds, such as no demonstration of efficacy.

In general, for purposes of NDA approval, human clinical trials are typically conducted in three sequential phases that may overlap.

Phase 1—Studies are initially conducted to test the product candidate for safety, dosage tolerance, structure-activity relationships, mechanism of action, absorption, metabolism, distribution and excretion in healthy volunteers or subjects with the target disease or condition. If possible, Phase 1 trials may also be used to gain an initial indication of product effectiveness.

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Phase 2—Controlled studies are conducted with groups of subjects with a specified disease or condition to provide enough data to evaluate the preliminary efficacy, optimal dosages and dosing schedule and expanded evidence of safety. Multiple Phase 2 clinical trials may be conducted to obtain information prior to beginning larger and more expensive Phase 3 clinical trials.

Phase 3—These clinical trials are undertaken in larger subject populations to provide statistically significant evidence of clinical efficacy and to further test for safety in an expanded subject population at multiple clinical trial sites. These clinical trials are intended to establish the overall risk/benefit ratio of the product and provide an adequate basis for product labeling. These trials may be done globally to support global registrations so long as the global sites are also representative of the U.S. population and the conduct of the study at global sites comports with U.S. FDA regulations and guidance, such as compliance with cGCP.

The U.S. FDA may require, or companies may pursue, additional clinical trials after a product is approved. These so-called Phase 4 studies may be made a condition to be satisfied after approval. The results of Phase 4 studies can confirm the effectiveness of a product candidate and can provide important safety information.

Clinical trials must be conducted under the supervision of qualified investigators in accordance with cGCP requirements, which includes the requirements that all research subjects provide their informed consent in writing for their participation in any clinical trial, and the review and approval of the study by an IRB. Investigators must also provide information to the clinical trial sponsors to allow the sponsors to make specified financial disclosures to the U.S. FDA. Clinical trials are conducted under protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the trial, the trial procedures, the parameters to be used in monitoring safety and the efficacy criteria to be evaluated and a statistical analysis plan. Information about some clinical trials, including a description of the trial and trial results, must be submitted within specific timeframes to the National Institutes of Health, or NIH, for public dissemination on their ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The manufacture of investigational drugs for the conduct of human clinical trials is subject to cGMP requirements. Investigational drugs and active pharmaceutical ingredients imported into the United States are also subject to regulation by the U.S. FDA relating to their labeling and distribution. Further, the export of investigational drug products outside of the United States is subject to regulatory requirements of the receiving country as well as U.S. export requirements under the FFDCA. Progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials must be submitted at least annually to the U.S. FDA and the IRB and more frequently if serious adverse events occur.

Concurrent with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional animal studies and must also develop additional information about the chemistry and physical characteristics of the product candidate as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product candidate and, among other things, must develop methods for testing the identity, strength, quality and purity of the final product. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested, and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the product candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf life.

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Orphan Drug Designation

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the U.S. FDA may designate a drug as an orphan drug if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition (generally meaning that it affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or more in cases in which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making a drug available in the United States for treatment of the disease or condition will be recovered from sales of the product). Orphan product designation must be requested before submitting an NDA or Biologics License Application. After the

U.S. FDA grants orphan product designation, the identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the U.S. FDA. Orphan product designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review and approval process.

If a product with orphan status receives the first U.S. FDA approval for the disease or condition for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan product exclusivity, meaning that the U.S. FDA may not approve any other applications to market the same drug for the same indication for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan exclusivity or if the party holding the exclusivity fails to assure the availability of sufficient quantities of the drug to meet the needs of patients with the disease or condition for which the drug was designated. Competitors, however, may receive approval of different products for the same indication for which the orphan product has exclusivity or obtain approval for the same product but for a different indication for which the orphan product has exclusivity. Orphan medicinal product status in the European Union has similar, but not identical, benefits. For example, the European Union grants ten years of product exclusivity for orphan medicinal products.

Special U.S. FDA Expedited Review and Approval Programs

The U.S. FDA has various programs, including fast track designation, breakthrough therapy designation, accelerated approval, and priority review, which are intended to expedite or simplify the process for the development and U.S. FDA review of drugs that are intended for the treatment of serious or life threatening diseases or conditions and demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical needs. The purpose of these programs is to provide important new drugs to patients earlier than under standard U.S. FDA review procedures.

Under the fast track program, the sponsor of a new drug candidate may request that U.S. FDA designate the drug candidate for a specific indication as a fast track drug concurrent with, or after, the filing of the IND for the drug candidate. To be eligible for a fast track designation, the U.S. FDA must determine, based on the request of a sponsor, that a product is intended to treat a serious or life threatening disease or condition and demonstrates the potential to address an unmet medical need, or that the drug qualifies as a qualified infectious disease product, or QIDP, under the GAIN Act. The U.S. FDA will determine that a product will fill an unmet medical need if it will provide a therapy where none exists or provide a therapy that may be potentially superior to existing therapy based on efficacy or safety factors. Fast track designation provides additional opportunities for interaction with the U.S. FDA’s review team and may allow for rolling review of NDA components before the completed application is submitted, if the sponsor provides a schedule for the submission of the sections of the NDA, the U.S. FDA agrees to accept sections of the NDA and determines that the schedule is acceptable, and the sponsor pays any required user fees upon submission of the first section of the NDA. However, U.S. FDA’s time period goal for reviewing an application does not begin until the last section of the NDA is submitted. The U.S. FDA may decide to rescind the fast track designation if it determines that the qualifying criteria no longer apply.

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In addition, a sponsor can request breakthrough therapy designation for a drug if it is intended, alone or in combination with one or more other drugs, to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition, and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. Drugs designated as breakthrough therapies are eligible for intensive guidance from U.S. FDA on an efficient drug development program, organizational commitment to the development and review of the product including involvement of senior managers, and, like fast track products, are also eligible for rolling review of the NDA. Both fast track and breakthrough therapy products are also eligible for accelerated approval and/or priority review, if relevant criteria are met.

Under the U.S. FDA’s accelerated approval regulations, the U.S. FDA may approve a drug for a serious or life threatening illness that provides meaningful therapeutic benefit to patients over existing treatments based upon a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict clinical benefit, or on a clinical endpoint that can be measured earlier than irreversible morbidity or mortality, that is reasonably likely to predict an effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit, taking into account the severity, rarity, or prevalence of the condition and the availability or lack of alternative treatments. A drug candidate approved on this basis is subject to rigorous post marketing compliance requirements, including the completion of Phase 4 or post approval clinical trials to confirm the effect on the clinical endpoint. Failure to conduct required post approval studies, or confirm a clinical benefit during post marketing studies, will allow U.S. FDA to withdraw the drug from the market on an expedited basis. All promotional materials for drug candidates approved under accelerated approval regulations are subject to prior review by U.S. FDA.

Once an NDA is submitted for a product intended to treat a serious condition, the U.S. FDA may assign a priority review designation if U.S. FDA determines that the product, if approved, would provide a significant improvement in safety or effectiveness. A priority review means that the goal for the U.S. FDA to review an application is six months, rather than the standard review of ten months under current Prescription Drug User Fee Act, or PDUFA, guidelines. Under the current PDUFA agreement, these six and ten month review periods are measured from the 60-day filing date rather than the receipt date for NDAs for new molecular entities, which typically adds approximately two months to the timeline for review from the date of submission. Most products that are eligible for fast track breakthrough therapy designation are also likely to be considered appropriate to receive a priority review.

Even if a product qualifies for one or more of these programs, the U.S. FDA may later decide that the product no longer meets the conditions for qualification or decide that the time period for U.S. FDA review or approval will not be shortened. In addition, the manufacturer of an investigational drug for a serious or life threatening disease is required to make available, such as by posting on its website, its policy on responding to requests for expanded access. Furthermore, fast track designation, breakthrough therapy designation, accelerated approval and priority review do not change the standards for approval and may not ultimately expedite the development or approval process.

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NDA Submission and Review by the U.S. FDA

Assuming successful completion of the required clinical and preclinical testing, among other items, the results of product development, including chemistry, manufacture and controls, nonclinical studies and clinical trials are submitted to the U.S. FDA, along with proposed labeling, as part of an U.S. NDA. The submission of an NDA requires payment of a substantial user fee to the U.S. FDA. These user fees must be filed at the time of the first submission of the application, even if the application is being submitted on a rolling basis. Fee waivers or reductions are available in some circumstances. One basis for a waiver of the application user fee is if the applicant employs fewer than 500 employees, including employees of affiliates, the applicant does not have an approved marketing application for a product that has been introduced or delivered for introduction into interstate commerce, and the applicant, including its affiliates, is submitting its first marketing application.

In addition, under the Pediatric Research Equity Act, or PREA, an NDA or supplement to an NDA for a new active ingredient, indication, dosage form, dosage regimen or route of administration must contain data that are adequate to assess the safety and efficacy of the drug for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations, and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective.

The U.S. FDA may, on its own initiative or at the request of the applicant, grant deferrals for submission of some or all pediatric data until after approval of the product for use in adults or full or partial waivers from the pediatric data requirements.

The U.S. FDA must refer applications for drugs that contain active ingredients, including any ester or salt of the active ingredients, which have not previously been approved by the U.S. FDA to an advisory committee or provide in an action letter a summary of the reasons for not referring it to an advisory committee. The U.S. FDA may also refer drugs which present difficult questions of safety, purity or potency to an advisory committee. An advisory committee is typically a panel that includes clinicians and other experts who review, evaluate and make a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The U.S. FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making decisions.

The U.S. FDA reviews applications to determine, among other things, whether a product is safe and effective for its intended use and whether the manufacturing controls are adequate to assure and preserve the product’s identity, strength, quality and purity. Before approving an NDA, the U.S. FDA will inspect the facility or facilities where the product is manufactured. The U.S. FDA will not approve an application unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities, including contract manufacturers and subcontracts, are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. Additionally, before approving an NDA, the U.S. FDA will typically inspect one or more clinical trial sites to assure compliance with cGCP.

Once the U.S. FDA receives an application, it has 60 days to review the NDA to determine if it is substantially complete to permit a substantive review, before it accepts the application for filing. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the U.S. FDA begins an in-depth review of the NDA. The U.S. FDA’s NDA review times may differ based on whether the application is a standard review or priority review application. The U.S. FDA may give a priority review designation to drugs that are intended to treat serious conditions and provide significant improvements in the safety or effectiveness of the treatment, diagnosis, or prevention of serious conditions. Under the goals and policies agreed to by the U.S. FDA under the PDUFA, the U.S. FDA has set the review goal of 10 months from the 60-day filing date to complete its initial review of a standard NDA for a new molecular entity, or NME, and make a decision on the application. For non-NME standard applications, the U.S. FDA has set the review goal of 10

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months from the submission date to complete its initial review and to make a decision on the application. For priority review applications, the U.S. FDA has set the review goal of reviewing NME NDAs within six months of the 60-day filing date and non-NME applications within six months of the submission date. Such deadlines are referred to as the PDUFA date. The PDUFA date is only a goal and the U.S. FDA does not always meet its PDUFA dates. The review process and the PDUFA date may also be extended if the U.S. FDA requests or the NDA sponsor otherwise provides additional information or clarification regarding the submission.

Once the U.S. FDA’s review of the application is complete, the U.S. FDA will issue either a Complete Response Letter, or CRL, or approval letter. A CRL indicates that the review cycle of the application is complete and the application is not ready for approval. A CRL generally contains a statement of specific conditions that must be met in order to secure final approval of the NDA and may require additional clinical or preclinical testing, or other information or analyses in order for the U.S. FDA to reconsider the application. The U.S. FDA has the goal of reviewing 90% of application resubmissions in either two or six months of the resubmission date, depending on the kind of resubmission. Even with the submission of additional information, the U.S. FDA ultimately may decide that the application does not satisfy the regulatory criteria for approval. If and when those conditions have been met to the U.S. FDA’s satisfaction, the U.S. FDA may issue an approval letter. An approval letter authorizes commercial marketing of the drug with specific prescribing information for specific indications. The U.S. FDA may delay or refuse approval of an NDA if applicable regulatory criteria are not satisfied, require additional testing or information and/or require post-marketing testing and surveillance to monitor safety or efficacy of a product, or impose other conditions, including distribution restrictions or other risk management mechanisms. For example, the U.S. FDA may require a REMS as a condition of approval or following approval to mitigate any identified or suspected serious risks and ensure safe use of the drug. The U.S. FDA may prevent or limit further marketing of a product, or impose additional post-marketing requirements, based on the results of post-marketing studies or surveillance programs. After approval, some types of changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications, manufacturing changes and additional labeling claims, are subject to further testing requirements, U.S. FDA notification and U.S. FDA review and approval. Further, should new safety information arise, additional testing, product labeling or U.S. FDA notification may be required.

If regulatory approval of a product is granted, such approval may entail limitations on the indicated uses for which such product may be marketed or may include contraindications, warnings or precautions in the product labeling, which has resulted in a Black Box warning. The U.S. FDA also may not approve the inclusion of labeling claims necessary for successful marketing. Once approved, the U.S. FDA may withdraw the product approval if compliance with pre- and post-marketing regulatory standards is not maintained or if problems occur after the product reaches the marketplace. In addition, the U.S. FDA may require Phase 4 post-marketing studies to monitor the effect of approved products, and may limit further marketing of the product based on the results of these post-marketing studies.

Post-Approval Requirements

Any products manufactured or distributed by us pursuant to U.S. FDA approvals are subject to continuing regulation by the U.S. FDA, including manufacturing, periodic reporting, product sampling and distribution, advertising, promotion, drug shortage reporting, compliance with any post-approval requirements imposed as a conditional of approval such as Phase 4 clinical trials, REMS and surveillance, recordkeeping and reporting requirements, including adverse experiences.

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After approval, most changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications or other labeling claims are subject to prior U.S. FDA review and approval. There also are continuing, annual user fee requirements for any approved products and the establishments at which such products are manufactured, as well as new application fees for supplemental applications with clinical data. Drug manufacturers and their subcontractors are required to register their establishments with the U.S. FDA and certain state agencies and to list their drug products, and are subject to periodic announced and unannounced inspections by the U.S. FDA and these state agencies for compliance with cGMP and other requirements, which impose procedural and documentation requirements upon us and our third-party manufacturers.

Changes to the manufacturing process are strictly regulated and often require prior U.S. FDA approval before being implemented, or U.S. FDA notification. U.S. FDA regulations also require investigation and correction of any deviations from cGMP and specifications, and impose reporting and documentation requirements upon the sponsor and any third-party manufacturers that the sponsor may decide to use. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain cGMP compliance.

Later discovery of previously unknown problems with a product, including AEs of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in withdrawal of marketing approval, mandatory revisions to the approved labeling to add new safety information  or other limitations, imposition of post-market studies or clinical trials to assess new safety risks, or imposition of distribution or other restrictions under a REMS program, among other consequences.

The U.S. FDA closely regulates the marketing and promotion of drugs. A company can make only those claims relating to safety and efficacy, purity and potency that are approved by the U.S. FDA. Physicians, in their independent professional medical judgement, may prescribe legally available products for uses that are not described in the product’s labeling and that differ from those tested by us and approved by the U.S. FDA. We, however, are prohibited from marketing or promoting drugs for uses outside of the approved labeling.

In addition, the distribution of prescription pharmaceutical products, including samples, is subject to the Prescription Drug Marketing Act, or PDMA, which regulates the distribution of drugs and drug samples at the federal level, and sets minimum standards for the registration and regulation of drug distributors by the states. Both the PDMA and state laws limit the distribution of prescription pharmaceutical product samples and impose requirements to ensure accountability in distribution. The Drug Supply Chain Security Act also imposes obligations on manufacturers of pharmaceutical products related to product and tracking and tracing.

Failure to comply with any of the U.S. FDA’s requirements could result in significant adverse enforcement actions. These include a variety of administrative or judicial sanctions, such as refusal to approve pending applications, license suspension or revocation, withdrawal of an approval, imposition of a clinical hold or termination of clinical trials, warning letters, untitled letters, cyber letters, modification of promotional materials or labeling, product recalls, product seizures or detentions, refusal to allow imports or exports, total or partial suspension of production or distribution, debarment, injunctions, fines, consent decrees, corporate integrity agreements, refusals of government contracts and new orders under existing contracts, exclusion from participation in federal and state healthcare programs, restitution, disgorgement or civil or criminal penalties, including fines and imprisonment. It is also possible that failure to comply with the U.S. FDA’s requirements relating to the promotion of prescription drugs may lead to investigations alleging violations of federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse and other laws, as well as state consumer protection laws. Any of these sanctions could result in adverse publicity, among other adverse consequences.

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Other U.S. Healthcare Laws and Regulations

Healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payors play a primary role in the recommendation and use of medical products and drug formulations that are granted marketing approval. Arrangements with third-party payors, existing or potential customers and referral sources, including healthcare providers, are subject to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations, and these laws and regulations may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which manufacturers conduct clinical research, market, sell and distribute the products for which they obtain marketing approval. Such restrictions under applicable federal and state healthcare laws and regulations include the following:

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Because of the breadth of these laws and the narrowness of the statutory exceptions and regulatory safe harbors available, it is possible that certain business activities can be subject to challenge under one or more of such laws. In addition, recent health care reform legislation has strengthened these laws.

Violation of the laws described above or any other governmental laws and regulations may result in civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, the curtailment or restructuring of operations, the exclusion from participation in federal and state healthcare programs, disgorgement, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, imprisonment, and additional reporting requirements and oversight if a manufacturer becomes subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws. Furthermore, efforts to ensure that business activities and business arrangements comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations can be costly for manufacturers of branded prescription products.

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Coverage and Reimbursement

Significant uncertainty exists as to the coverage and reimbursement status of any products, for which we may obtain regulatory approval, and the procedures utilizing such products. In the United States, sales of any product candidates for which regulatory approval for commercial sale is obtained will depend in part on the availability of coverage and adequate reimbursement from third-party payors for the approved products, and procedures which utilize such products. Third-party payors include government authorities and health programs in the United States such as Medicare and Medicaid, managed care providers, private health insurers and other organizations. These third-party payors are increasingly reducing reimbursements for medical products and services. The process for determining whether a payor will provide coverage for a product, or procedures which utilizes such product, may be separate from the process for setting the reimbursement rate that the payor will pay for the product, or procedures which utilize such product. Third-party payors may limit coverage to specific products on an approved list, or formulary, which might not include all of U.S. FDA-approved products for a particular indication.

Additionally, the containment of healthcare costs has become a priority of federal and state governments. The U.S. government, state legislatures and foreign governments have shown significant interest in implementing cost-containment programs, including price controls, restrictions on coverage and reimbursement and requirements for substitution of less expensive products and procedures. Adoption of price controls and cost-containment measures, and adoption of more restrictive policies in jurisdictions with existing controls and measures, could further limit our net revenue and results.

A payor’s decision to provide coverage for a product, or procedures which utilize such product, does not imply that an adequate reimbursement rate will be approved. Further, coverage and reimbursement for products, and procedure which utilize such products, can differ significantly from payor to payor. As a result, the coverage determination process is often a time-consuming and costly process that will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be applied consistently or obtained in the first instance.

Third-party payors are increasingly challenging the price and examining the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of medical products and services, in addition to their safety and efficacy. In order to obtain coverage and reimbursement for any product that might be approved for sale, or any procedure which utilizes such product, it may be necessary to conduct expensive pharmacoeconomic studies in order to demonstrate the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of the products, and procedures which utilize such products, in addition to the costs required to obtain regulatory approvals. If third-party payors do not consider a product, or procedures which utilize such product, to be cost-effective compared to other available therapies, they may not cover the product, or procedures which utilize such product, after approval as a benefit under their plans or, if they do, the level of payment may not be sufficient to allow a company to sell its products at a profit.

The marketability of any product candidates for which we or our collaborators receive regulatory approval for commercial sale may suffer if the government and third-party payors fail to provide adequate coverage and reimbursement for the product, or any procedure which utilizes such product. In addition, emphasis on managed care in the United States has increased and we expect will continue to increase the pressure on medical products and services pricing. Coverage policies and third-party reimbursement rates may change at any time. Even if favorable coverage and reimbursement status is attained for one or more products for which we or our collaborators receive regulatory approval, less favorable coverage policies and reimbursement rates may be implemented in the future.

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In the European Union, pricing and reimbursement schemes vary widely from country to country. Some countries provide that products may be marketed only after a reimbursement price has been agreed. Some countries may require the completion of additional studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of a particular product candidate to currently available therapies. European Union Member States may approve a specific price for a product or it may instead adopt a system of direct or indirect controls on the profitability of the company placing the product on the market. Other member states allow companies to fix their own prices for products, but monitor and control company profits. The downward pressure on health care costs has become intense. As a result, increasingly high barriers are being erected to the entry of new products. In addition, in some countries, cross-border imports from low-priced markets exert competitive pressure that may reduce pricing within a country. Any country that has price controls or reimbursement limitations may not allow favorable reimbursement and pricing arrangements.

Health Reform

The United States and some foreign jurisdictions are considering or have enacted a number of reform proposals to change the healthcare system. There is significant interest in promoting changes in healthcare systems with the stated goals of containing healthcare costs, improving quality or expanding access. In the United States, the pharmaceutical industry has been a particular focus of these efforts and has been significantly affected by federal and state legislative initiatives, including those designed to limit the pricing, coverage, and reimbursement of pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical products as well as the procedures which utilize such products, especially under government-funded health care programs, and increased governmental control of health care costs.

By way of example, in March 2010, the PPACA was signed into law, which is intended to broaden access to health insurance, reduce or constrain the growth of healthcare spending, enhance remedies against fraud and abuse, add transparency requirements for the healthcare and health insurance industries, impose taxes and fees on the healthcare industry and impose additional health policy reforms. Among the provisions of the PPACA of importance to our business are:

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Since its enactment, there have been judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the PPACA, as well as recent efforts by the Trump administration to repeal or replace certain aspects of the PPACA. Since January 2017, President Trump has signed two Executive Orders and other directives designed to delay the implementation of certain provisions of the PPACA or otherwise circumvent some of the requirements for health insurance mandated by the PPACA. In addition, CMS recently published a final rule that will give states greater flexibility in setting benchmarks for insurers in the individual and small group marketplaces, which may have the effect of relaxing the essential health benefits required under the PPACA for plans sold through such marketplaces. Further, Congress has considered legislation that would repeal or repeal and replace all or part of the PPACA. While Congress has not passed comprehensive repeal legislation, two bills affecting the implementation of certain taxes under the PPACA have been signed into law. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, or Tax Act, includes a provision that repealed, effective January 1, 2019, the tax-based shared responsibility payment imposed by the PPACA on certain individuals who fail to maintain qualifying health coverage for all or part of a year that is commonly referred to as the “individual mandate”. On January 22, 2018, President Trump signed a continuing resolution on appropriations for the year ended 2018 that delayed the implementation of certain PPACA-mandated fees, including the so-called “Cadillac” tax on certain high cost employer-sponsored insurance plans, the annual fee imposed on certain health insurance providers based on market share, and the medical device excise tax on non-exempt medical devices. The Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, or the BBA, among other things, amended the PPACA, effective January 1, 2019, to close the coverage gap in most Medicare drug plans, commonly referred to as the “donut hole.” In July 2018, CMS published a final rule permitting further collections and payments to and from certain PPACA qualified health plans and health insurance issuers under the PPACA risk adjustment program in response to the outcome of federal district court litigation regarding the method CMS uses to determine this risk adjustment. On December 14, 2018, a U.S. District Court Judge in the Northern District of Texas, or Texas District Court Judge, ruled that the individual mandate is a critical and inseverable feature of the PPACA, and therefore, because it was repealed as part of the Tax Act, the remaining provisions of the PPACA are invalid as well. While the Texas District Court Judge, as well as the Trump Administration and CMS, have stated that the ruling will have no immediate effect, it is unclear how this decision, subsequent appeals, and other efforts to repeal and replace the PPACA will impact the PPACA.

Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted in the United States since the PPACA was enacted. For example, in August 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011, among other things, created measures for spending reductions by U.S. Congress. A Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction, tasked with recommending a targeted deficit reduction of at least $1.2 trillion for the years 2012 through 2021, was unable to reach required goals, thereby triggering the legislation’s automatic reduction to several government programs.

This includes aggregate reductions of Medicare payments to providers of up to 2% per fiscal year, which went into effect in April 2013 and, due to subsequent legislative amendments to the statute, including the BBA, will remain in effect through 2027 unless additional Congressional action is taken. In January 2013, the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to certain providers, and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years.

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Additionally, there have been several recent Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, reduce the cost of prescription drugs under Medicare, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. At the federal level, the Trump administration’s budget proposal for the year ended 2019 contains further drug price control measures that could be enacted during the 2019 budget process or in other future legislation, including, for example, measures to permit Medicare Part D plans to negotiate the price of certain drugs under Medicare Part B, to allow some states to negotiate drug prices under Medicaid, and to eliminate cost sharing for generic drugs for low-income patients. Additionally, the Trump administration released a “Blueprint” to lower drug prices and reduce out of pocket costs of drugs that contains additional proposals to increase manufacturer competition, increase the negotiating power of certain federal healthcare programs, incentivize manufacturers to lower the list price of their products and reduce the out of pocket costs of drug products paid by consumers. HHS has already started the process of soliciting feedback on some of these measures and, at the same, is immediately implementing others under its existing authority. For example, in September 2018, CMS announced that it will allow Medicare Advantage Plans the option to use step therapy for Part B drugs beginning January 1, 2019, and in October 2018, CMS proposed a new rule that would require direct-to-consumer television advertisements of prescription drugs and biological products, for which payment is available through or under Medicare or Medicaid, to include in the advertisement the Wholesale Acquisition Cost, or list price, of that drug or biological product. In addition, on January 31, 2019, the HHS Office of Inspector General, proposed modifications to the U.S. Anti-Kickback Statute discount safe harbor for the purpose of reducing the cost of drug products to consumers which, among other things, if finalized, will affect discounts paid by manufacturers to Medicare Part D plans, Medicaid managed care organizations and pharmacy benefit managers working with these organizations. Although a number of these, and other proposed, measures will require additional authorization to become effective, Congress and the Trump administration have each indicated that it will continue to seek new legislative and/or administrative measures to control drug costs. At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing.

Further, on May 30, 2018, the Trickett Wendler, Frank Mongiello, Jordan McLinn, and Matthew Bellina Right to Try Act of 2017, or the Right to Try Act, was signed into law. The law, among other things, provides a federal framework for certain patients to access certain investigational new drug products that have completed a Phase I clinical trial and that are undergoing investigation for FDA approval. Under certain circumstances, eligible patients can seek treatment without enrolling in clinical trials and without obtaining FDA permission under the FDA expanded access program. There is no obligation for a pharmaceutical manufacturer to make its drug products available to eligible patients as a result of the Right to Try Act.

Additional Regulation

In addition to the foregoing, state and federal laws regarding environmental protection and hazardous substances, including the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Toxic Substances Control Act, affect our business. These and other laws govern the use, handling and disposal of various biologic, chemical and radioactive substances used in, and wastes generated by, operations. If our operations result in contamination of the environment or expose individuals to hazardous substances, we could be liable for damages and governmental fines. Equivalent laws have been adopted in other countries that impose similar obligations.

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U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act

The U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, as amended, or FCPA, prohibits corporations and individuals from engaging in certain activities to obtain or retain business or secure any improper advantage, or to influence a person working in an official capacity. It is illegal to pay, offer to pay or authorize the payment of anything of value to any employee or official of a foreign government or public international organization, or political party, political party official, or political candidate in an attempt to obtain or retain business or to otherwise influence a person working in an official capacity. The scope of the FCPA also includes employees and official of state-owned or controlled enterprises, which may include healthcare professionals in many countries. Equivalent laws have been adopted in other foreign countries that impose similar obligations.

European Union General Data Protection Regulation

In addition to European Union regulations related to the approval and commercialization of our products, we may be subject to the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR. The GDPR imposes stringent requirements for controllers and processors of personal data of persons in the European Union, including, for example, more robust disclosures to individuals and a strengthened individual data rights regime, shortened timelines for data breach notifications, limitations on retention of information, increased requirements pertaining to special categories of data, such as health data, and additional obligations when we contract with third-party processors in connection with the processing of the personal data. The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data out of the European Union to the United States and other third countries. In addition, the GDPR provides that European Union member states may make their own further laws and regulations limiting the processing of personal data, including genetic, biometric or health data.

The GDPR applies extraterritorially, and we may be subject to the GDPR because of our data processing activities that involve the personal data of individuals located in the European Union, such as in connection with any European Union clinical trials. Failure to comply with the requirements of the GDPR and the applicable national data protection laws of the European Union member states may result in fines of up to €20,000,000 or up to 4% of the total worldwide annual turnover of the preceding financial year, whichever is higher, and other administrative penalties. GDPR regulations may impose additional responsibility and liability in relation to the personal data that we process and we may be required to put in place additional mechanisms to ensure compliance with the new data protection rules.

China Government Regulation of Drug Products

In China, we operate in an increasingly complex legal and regulatory environment. We are subject to a variety of Chinese laws, rules and regulations affecting many aspects of our business. This section summarizes the principal Chinese laws, rules and regulations relevant to our business and operations.

Foreign Investment in the Pharmaceutical Industry

Investment activities in China by foreign investors are principally governed by the Guidance Catalogue of Industries for Foreign Investment, or the Catalogue, which was promulgated and is amended from time to time by the Ministry of Commerce, or MOFCOM, and the National Development and Reform Commission, or NRDC. Pursuant to the latest Catalogue, amended and issued on June 28, 2017 and effective on July 28, 2017, or the 2017 Catalogue, industries listed therein are divided into two categories: encouraged industries and the industries within the catalogue of special entry administrative measures, or the Negative List, amended and issued separately on June 28, 2018 and effective on July 28, 2018.

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Establishment of wholly foreign-owned enterprises is generally allowed in industries outside of the Negative List. Foreign investors are not allowed to invest in industries that are expressly prohibited in the Negative List. The industries that are not expressly prohibited in the Negative List are subject to government approvals and certain special requirements.  For instance, some are limited to equity or contractual joint ventures, while in some cases Chinese partners are required to hold the majority interests in such joint ventures. Industries not listed in the Catalogue are generally open to foreign investment unless specifically restricted by other People’s Republic of China, or PRC, regulations.

Pursuant to the Negative List updated in June 2018, the manufacture of pharmaceutical products mostly falls outside of the Negative List.

Under Chinese law, the establishment of a wholly foreign-owned enterprise is subject to the approval of, or the requirement for record filing with, MOFCOM or its local counterparts and the wholly foreign owned enterprise must register with the competent administrative bureau of market regulation. We have completed the record filing with MOFCOM or its local counterparts for our interest in our wholly-owned PRC subsidiary and completed the registration of our PRC subsidiary with the competent administrative bureau of market regulation.

In October 2016, MOFCOM issued the Interim Measures for Record-filing Administration of the Establishment and Change of Foreign-invested Enterprises, or FIE Record-filing Interim Measures. Pursuant to FIE Record-filing Interim Measures, the establishment and change of foreign-invested enterprises are subject to record-filing procedures, instead of prior approval requirements, provided that the establishment or change does not involve special entry administrative measures. If the establishment or change of FIE matters involve the special entry administrative measures, the approval of MOFCOM or its local counterparts is still required.

General Regulations of the NMPA

In China, the NMPA monitors and supervises the administration of pharmaceutical products, as well as medical devices and equipment. The NMPA’s primary responsibility includes evaluating, registering and approving new drugs, generic drugs, imported drugs and traditional Chinese medicines; approving and issuing permits for the manufacture, export and import of pharmaceutical products and medical appliances; approving the establishment of enterprises for pharmaceutical manufacture and distribution; formulating administrative rules and policies concerning the supervision and administration of food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals; and handling significant accidents involving these products. Local provincial drug administrative authorities are responsible for supervision and administration of drugs within their respective administrative regions.

The Drug Administration Law of China promulgated by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress in 1984 and the Implementing Measures of the Drug Administration Law of China promulgated by the Ministry of Health, or MOH in 1989 set forth the legal framework for the administration of pharmaceutical products, including the research, development and manufacturing of drugs.

The Drug Administration Law of China went through several revisions and was last revised in April 2015. The purpose of the revisions was to strengthen the supervision and administration of pharmaceutical products and to ensure the quality and safety of those products for human use. The Drug Administration Law of China regulates and prescribes a framework for the administration of pharmaceutical preparations of medical institutions and for the development, research, manufacturing, distribution, packaging, pricing and advertisement of pharmaceutical products. The Implementing Measures of the Drug Administration Law of China promulgated by the State Council and most recently revised in February 2016 provide detailed implementing regulations for the revised Drug Administration Law of China.

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Approval for Clinical Trials and Production of New Drugs

According to the Provisions for Drug Registration promulgated by the CFDA (now the NMPA) in 2007, the Drug Administration Law of China, the Provisions on the Administration of Special Examination and Approval of Registration of New Drugs, the Special Examination and Approval Provisions issued by the CFDA in 2009, and the Circular on Information Publish Platform for Pharmaceutical Clinical Trials issued by the CFDA in 2013, we must comply with the following procedures and obtain several approvals for clinical trials and production of new drugs.

New Drug Application

When clinical trials have been completed, an applicant shall apply to the NMPA for approval of a new drug application. The NMPA, the Center for Drug Evaluation, or the CDE, and the Drug Inspection Institution will conduct reviews and on-site inspections. The NMPA determines whether to approve the application according to the comprehensive evaluation opinions produced by the reviews and on-site inspections. We must obtain approval of our new drug applications before our drugs can be manufactured and sold in the Chinese market.

According to the Provisions for Drug Registration, drug registration applications are divided into three different types, namely Domestic New Drug Application, Domestic Generic Drug Application, and Imported Drug Application.

Drug Registration Classification

In March 2016, the CFDA (now NMPA) promulgated the Work Plan for Reforming the Chemical Medicines Registration Classification System, under which, the registrations of chemical medicines are divided into five categories as follows:

The registration of Category 1 or Category 2 drugs above will be subject to the requirements of the Domestic New Drug Application, Category 3 or Category 4 drugs will be subject to the Domestic Generic Drug Application, and Category 5 drugs will be subject to the Imported Drug Application.

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Special Examination and Approval Procedures for Innovative Drugs

According to the Special Examination and Approval Provisions, the NMPA will conduct special examination and approval for new drugs registration application when:

The Special Examination and Approval Provisions provide that the applicant may file for special examination and approval at the stage of Clinical Trial Application if the drug candidate falls within items (1) or (2). For drug candidates that fall within items (3) or (4), the application for special examination and approval must be made when filing for production.

In addition, under the Special Examination and Approval Provisions, where a special examination and approval treatment is granted, the application for clinical trial and manufacturing will be handled with priority and with enhanced communication with the CDE of the NMPA, which will establish a working mechanism for communicating with the applicants. If it becomes necessary to revise the clinical trial scheme or make other major alterations during the clinical trial, the applicant may file an application for communication. When an application for communication is approved, the CDE will arrange the communication with the applicant within one month.

We believe that certain of our products fall within items (2) and (3) above. Therefore, we may file an application for special examination and approval at the Clinical Trial Application stage, which may enable us to pursue a more expedited path to approval in China and bring therapies to patients more quickly.

Reform of the Review and Approval Process for Drug Registration

In order to address a number of issues relating to the current drug registration system, in particular, long registration time, significant application backlog, low-quality drug application clinical data, and a difficult registration system for innovative drugs, the State Council and the NMPA have issued and implemented a numbers of opinions and orders.

In November 2015, the CFDA (now NMPA) released the Circular Concerning Several Policies on Drug Registration Review and Approval, which further clarified the following policies potentially simplifying and accelerating the approval process of clinical trials: